I. Introduction [610658]

I. Introduction

Since ancient times, clothing has become one of the fundamental needs of man along with
food and shelter. Although in its origins it was related to the need to face inclement weather, never
to a lesser extent has clothing stopped working as a plus sign, proper to tribal customs and
conventions of society.
Thus, for many years, clothing has been associated with the phenomenon of fashion, an
industry that constantly changes and functions as a highly complex device of meaning and
symb olic power within a society.
In democracies, possessions and their various forms of acquisition are of great importance
because they serve much more than simply uniting individuals with others within society, thereby
generating a sense of belonging. Consum ption in general, and clothing consumption in particular,
is a way of expressing individual freedom, and many democratic governments in Europe recognize
and accept that freedom.
In some of these cases, education may have low budgets or health services will be poor but
almost all governments omit the possibility of raising taxes to solve these problems. However, it
could be said that most of the governments of the European continent promote policies where
citizens can retain a more than sufficient percentage of their income to spend it on consumption
and thus continue to rotate the economy. They also function as states that provide a certain degree
of well -being to their citizens and grant them different ways to finance expenses intended to
incentivize the te xtile industry.
In some way, with all this, the desire to have is consented: a desire that manifests itself
more clearly in the change of clothing. It is almost a defining characteristic of Western society that
its citizens are free to express themselves t hrough their appearances. That is why fashion is the
backbone of the consumer society. This indicates that people can display their consumption
through clothing in a much more accessible way than the consumption of a car, a house, or other
luxury items imp lies.
Clothing fashion has become a sort of catalyst that makes development possible in many
areas of life; it unleashes the imagination and allows new ideas and concepts to be accepted.
Although it has been branded as trivial and no more than a diversion of the feminine gender,
fashion has become a creative force very soon to influence every individual.1
In the order of appearance and individuality, Lipovetsky has developed an entire book
focusing on current fashion on these axes. "You have to go with the flow but signify a particular

1 McDowell, Colin. 1984.McDowell's Directory of Twentieth -Century Fashion. London: Frederick Muller, p.7.

taste. This device that combines mimicry and individualism is found, at different levels, in all
spheres where fashion is practised, although nowhere does it manifest itself as strongly as in the
field of appearance: the suit, hairstyle, and makeup are the most immediately spectacular signs of
the affirmation of the Ego "2.
In addition to authors such as Simmel and Bourdieu, Lipovetsky adds that people no longer
dress only to distinguish themselves from subordinate layers and d isplay a range, but also seek to
change, be modern, please and express individuality. With the explosion of hedonism, fashion
does not only follow a search for social distinction but also adds a parallel taste for novelties and
the desire to manifest an ae sthetic individuality.3
In Lipovetsky’s vision, fashion appears as an aesthetic -bureaucratic face, then it has its
industrial face and finally a democratic and individualistic façade. He mentions that one of the
most pronounced characteristics of modern fa shion is that it is developed from a large industry
that produces frivolities and is subdivided into two others, each with its forms and recipients. These
two systems are Haute Couture and the Ready -to-wear or what is commonly called industrial
clothing. T hey are two sides of the same coin, where one produces for sumptuous consumption
almost unattainable, and the other massively produces relatively cheap serial garments that are
imitable to each other.
The fashion industry and the incitement to the desire t o have in consumers have originated
a form of production and habitual consumption that generates waste in quantity for the entire
planet. This idea added to the fact that fashion also works in therapeutic terms, and that is why
many women go out to buy clo thes or accessories, in addition to the fact that they constitute
themselves as moments of leisure and pleasure, result in the proliferation of the Fast Fashion
market or Quick Fashion, which makes each garment acquired disposable because it is cheap and
you can quickly consume a new one that is also fashionable. In the order of those who design, this
form also generates disadvantages because it makes the work of those who have to charge more
for their work less competitive. After all, the manufacture of cl othing requires an artisanal process
with higher costs4.

2 Lipovetsky, Gilles. 2012. El Imperio de lo Efímero: la Moda y Su Destino en las Sociedades Modernas. Barcelona:
Anagrama, p. 47.
3 Idem p. 7.
4 Strasser,Susan. 2000. Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash. New York: Henry Holt and Company.

II. The development of Make -up and Fashion through time

Women throughout history have changed their role in society on several occasions, this has
been reflected not only in their actions but also in their bodies and the way they adorn the bodies.
An example of this may be the use of makeup and the meanings that have been attributed to it over
time. Through makeup, the woman has related to her body, formed her identity, and shown her
place in s ociety. The functions of makeup have varied on multiple occasions because, in the same
way that it is currently used to highlight beauty at some time, it was also used as part of religious
rituals, as a face protector, as a reflection of social status or a s a form of expression of identity.
Makeup has always been associated with the female gender. Women were the only ones
socially accepted to wear cosmetics on their faces. However, public opinion has changed. With
the development of makeup and new technolog ies worldwide, some men are attracted to their use
and decide to share it through social networks. And that is what we love.
While many women make real sacrifices with insane diets and gym hours to get in and stay
in a size 36 to fit the beauty muscles imp osed by the fashion world, many others have thrown in
the towel and dream of waking up someday in the seventeenth century, where plump women were
most appetizing and longed for. Rubens made it very clear to us.
Like fashions and customs, the canon of femin ine beauty has had a marked evolution over
the centuries. We have gone from worshipping plump bodies and porcelain skins to wanting to
have the darkest of tiles covering nothing more than a pile of bones. The above -mentioned canon
can also be seen in make -up.

2.1 Short history of Make -up

In the nineteenth century, the premise proposed during the revolution is maintained, in
which, beauty is a physical attribute. As a result, body hygiene was primarily sought after. Work
on physical appearance occurs in the upper social classes, it was an act of low popularity. "Until
the end of the nineteenth century, the idolatry of the fair sex developed in a narrow social
framework, and artistic tributes to women, as well as aesthetic practices, barely crossed the
boundaries of the rich and cultured public."5
This generated a very marked differentiation on the part of the female gender; therefore,
the make -up was given in function and agreement with the social status. The pallor of the face was

5 Lipovetsky, Gilles. 2006. La troisième femme: Permanence et révolution du féminin. Barcelona: Editorial Anagrama,
p.119.

sought, revealing the lo w exposure to the sun and therefore the absence of work, eyes, and
eyebrows stood out slightly. The idea was to keep the essence of the body, to keep it in its original
state, connoting good health and little physical effort, thanks to a quiet life. This i s why cream and
fragrance factories sprang up at this time. Greater importance was given to cleanliness and body
health.
In the twentieth century, thanks to technological advancement and social changes brought
about by wars, a new social order was generate d, in which makeup stood out and developed
strongly, being affordable to all women.
Within the first ten years of the century, a personal arrangement was linked to the
preservation of the husband, and therefore of the family. In this way, women put on make -up to
attract men. There was a simple tendency, in which the face should be pale. Vaseline was also used
on the eyelids to make them look shiny. Rice powders, such as Helena Rubinstein’s, were used, as
they made the whiteness of the face more natural. By the end of this era, brands were beginning to
emerge, gradually building the cosmetics market.
It is at this time, brands such as Elizabeth Arden, Max Factor, L’Oréal, among others,
started with a small factory, store or hairdresser, developing specific pr oducts. For instance,
L’Oréal developed hair dyes; Elizabeth Arden specialized in youth maintenance; Maybelline
perfected the formula of the mask for the lashes, and finally, Max Factor made make -up for the
film actors, looking, unlike the other brands, to highlight the features, since the cameras did not
record well the faces of the actors, getting a brightly coloured make -up.
In the following decade, Max Factor began selling the products to the general public,
changing the current schemes. So far, only pr ostitutes and actresses have made up strikingly.
However, this changed with the release of Society Makeup , the make -up line used by actresses in
their films. In the same way, cinema and advertisement, encouraged the use of the make -up for
women of all social conditions, generating a popularization of cosmetics.
The above generated a completely different way of putting on make -up: the eyes were
highlighted with purple or red shadows and outlined in black, the lips were deep red, and the lashes
were highl ighted with an abundant mask. In these years, Rouge Baiser lipsticks were created,
which emulsify on contact with saliva, these were on the market until the sixties.
After the 1920s, the cosmetics market expanded with brands such as Revlon (who
developed n ail polish, and later lipsticks). Similarly, the Lancôme brand developed its first Rose
de France line.
Over time and with the variety of new products given at this time, the range of colours used
by women was expanded and there was a variation of styles. At this time, the pattern is set by
movie stars, who made all sorts of advertising for brands.

During World War II, the development of makeup stagnated. However, in Europe, women
continued to use it aesthetically. For the Jews in the concentration camps, i t was a form of
salvation, since the healthier they looked, the less likely they were to be killed. That’s why they
used bitumen and blood bars to put on as make -up. Despite the economic constraint and the
impossibility in Europe of the acquisition of thes e products, the make -up industry did not lose its
validity, since “in this world of seemingly interchangeable skeletal characters, it is necessary to
preserve an appearance of identity, not to give up”.6
It was not until after the Second World War that bat hs were installed inside the buildings,
which generated greater recognition and a new relationship with the body. This meant that a
concern for the body and aesthetic care was generated. As a result, the aesthetic market generates
new products. For example , Max Factor develops its Pan-Cake Make -up line in which water –
resistant products were made.
In this post -war era, body worship was considered one of the priorities in everyday life, so
new forms of exercise were developed for women. In addition to adverti sing in theatres, magazines
taught women how -to put -on makeup and look good all the time. These "are activities that are
equivalent to taking the body itself both as an end of its activity and as means."7
Thanks to this acceptance in the arrangement and de dication to appearance, the codes of
what was considered beautiful were changed. Women began to follow the idols of cinema, in the
mid-50s, Marilyn Monroe came to the screen and showed a new way of behaving and beauty. A
sexy beauty was consolidated, where the woman stands out for her sensuality and at the same time
for her tenderness. The mystery of the female body was lost "voluminous chest, round buttocks,
inciting postures, the highlight of the gaze and mouth".8
Due to this transformation, the use of ma keup changed in the same way, the use of light
but very marked shadows was established, the shape of the eyebrows was imitated by the divas of
the moment, a lot of eyelash and eyeliner was used to emphasize the eyes, the mouth stands out
with a very striki ng red colour. In conclusion, makeup was used to highlight the attributes of the
face and draw the attention of the male gender. Also, there was a concordance between the dress
and the colours used in makeup. You can see the case of Christian Dior, who in 1955, drew a line
of 8 lipsticks, which matched his clothing collection.
In the following decade, although there were diffusion and acceptance of a frivolous,
elegant and stylized woman, an attempt was made to make this beautiful style more affordable,
the woman was given a variation of what is aesthetic. At this time, the body and its modifications

6 Philippe, Aries. 1987. A History of Private Life (5 volume set). Madrid: Editorial Taurus, p. 225.
7 Idem, p. 102
8 Lipovetsky, Gilles. 2006. La troisième femme: Permanence et révolution du féminin. Barcelona: Editorial Anagrama,
p.162.

were considered an image that the woman gave herself to look good. The magazines showed
women a beauty standard, coming from their personality together with the ir physique. The media
valued the woman's authenticity and told them that they could do whatever they wanted with their
body. However, this created a contradiction for women: "On the one hand, the women's media
condemns women to be seen as 'decorative obje cts'; on the other hand, they spread a culture that
favours individual responsibility concerning the body and the principle of self -construction ".9
In the 1960s, a division of what was considered beautiful spread. Some women opted for
the naturalness of t he body, so they used little makeup. Others preferred elegance and
sophistication, using all kinds of products, including wigs and false eyelashes. By this time, the
cosmetics market was expanding all over the world and with a wide variety of products, whi ch
generated a variation in the ways of using makeup.
From this moment, fashion and the way to use make -up diversified. Women had various
options for putting on make -up, dressing, and generating through these elements an identity or
representation of what they wanted to show off themselves. It is then, the woman, who chooses
how to represent her beauty. Makeup, then, is for a woman a tool to show the features of the face
that she likes or considers that they show their beauty. "Inside this ambivalence betwe en
recognition and fiction, make -up plays a fundamental role. It is a matter of (…) predicting which
marks or expressive features of the face must be present to recognize beauty ”.10
In this manner, the woman no longer sought to enhance her beauty to plea se others, on the
contrary, she did so to feel good about herself. In the nineties, the emergence of "the model" made
women seek beauty for fashion and not for male desire. This fact made women the target of the
seduction of magazines, advertisements, and especially of the beautiful figures of the time.
Models became the representation of what the woman wanted to be. The importance of the
physique increased, making the concern to stay young, with a good figure, one of the priorities of
women. However, in th e creation of these models, make -up was constantly handled, it worked as
an artificial tool, which transformed the model into what is considered beautiful. "The star system
has constituted the reign of ‘manufactured’ beauty, orchestrated from end to end by seduction
specialists."11
In a world ruled by men, women throughout human history has been subjected to the
stereotypes of beauty created by society. The social acceptance of their bodies has been linked to
these stereotypes affecting their personality and the formation of their identity.

9 Lipovetsky, Gilles. 2006. La troisième fem me: Permanence et révolution du féminin. Barcelona: Editorial Anagrama,
p.154
10 McNeal, Keith E. 1999. Behind the Make -Up: Gender Ambivalence and the Double -Bind of Gay Selfhood in Drag
Performance. Arlington: Wiley.
11 Lipovetsky , Gilles. 2006. La troisième femme: Permanence et révolution du féminin. Barcelona: Editorial
Anagrama, p.168

As you can see, the body is a blank book, it can be modified in any way and those changes
represent what the woman wants to show off herself. Subject to changes and a variety of beauty
stereotypes, women use make -up as a c onstruction tool, extolling what they consider beautiful in
themselves.
Make -up, then, is a tool that allows diversifying the personality of women, adjusting to the
social parameters of the moment. Also, thanks to technological advances dating back to 1900,
cosmetics support and promote a variety of ways in which women can show themselves to the
world. Taking into account the great demand for make -up, annually, this industry has been
growing, not only for its technological advances but also for a wide r ange of products with specific
and varied functions. By combining these two factors, a large -scale industry is obtained, generating
a wide category in the market.
To understand the factors that affect the consumption of makeup and the cultural meanings
that it currently has, it is necessary to study how the production and marketing of this industry
works. For this reason, the following concerns regarding the make -up and cosmetics industry:
– To study the make -up industry, it is necessary to clarify that the category to which it
belongs is that of cosmetics, therefore, its movement within the market both nationally
and internationally can be seen within this category.
– To better understand why this classification will be defined as cosmetics any product
that has contact with different parts of the body, which has the function of cleaning,
modifying their smell, protecting them, maintaining their good condition, etc. Within
this category, in addition to make -up, there are powders, shampoos, creams, and
deodor ants.
Cosmetic production is characterized by the mixture of raw materials, but not chemical
reactions, therefore, its elaboration is not as complex as it is thought since it does not need high
technology. For the handling of these elements it is generall y necessary to use mills for the
homogenization of particles, mixers to integrate the components, modellers for products that need
a special shape (lipsticks with specific sizes and shapes) and finally the packers that although they
are currently used, som e companies still handle manual packaging.
This category involves companies of various types, such as pharmaceutical laboratories,
haute couture houses, personal consumer product companies, and various distribution companies,
among which they can range fro m chain stores to drugstores.
As you can see this industry is quite wide, this is thanks to the development of biochemistry
in recent times.

Having clear the technical part of the category of cosmetics, it is possible to give clearance
for research on the makeup market, which will see the participation figures of the most
representative brands in the sector, distribution, promotion, and consumption of these products.
Likewise, the prestigious brands have developed special collections according to the
seaso n, that is to say, products with special characteristics are designed and a limited production
becomes, in such a way that the product is more wished by the consumer. To make these cases
clearer, we can mention brands such as M.A.C., which focuses on lip g losses. These have a
gelatinous texture and their main feature is a pearly colour with a bit of frost. Another very clear
example is that of the Channel brand, which produces make -up according to the textile collection
they have on the market, therefore, i ts design is linked to clothing designs.

2.2 Short History of Fashion

Is it possible to identify the historical moment when fashion first emerged? It is an easy
question, but difficult to answer. In Antiquity, you can already talk about fashion, as evide nced by
the frescoes of Pompeii and Herculaneum. However, in many respects, fashion, as we understand
it today, had its origins in medieval times and changed during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, until it assumed many of the characters of ‘modern fashion’. Note that the root of the
words fashion and modern is the same. In many ways, the medieval origin of fashion also marks
the beginning of modernity.
The medieval origin of fashion is twofold. On the one hand, it prevails as part of the culture
of the European courts: it is about fashion as luxury, magnificence, and refinement, which becomes
a distinctive feature of social elites; on the other hand, however, it is also a more widespread
phenomenon that affects broad strata of the European urban pop ulation: it is street fashion, a source
of concern among ecclesiastical and political hierarchies.
To understand this double aspect, it is necessary to refer to the context in which fashion
emerged between the 13th and 14th centuries. Medieval society was highly hierarchical, with a
marked division of classes (warriors, clergy, and peasants) and with strong vertical power
relations, for example between vassals, vavasors, and valuations. In the High Middle Ages, there
is no talk of fashion but of dress, whic h identifies and distinguishes groups of individuals.
The clothing distinguishes the married woman from the marriageable, the Christian from
the unfaithful, the stranger from the citizen, and so forth. A street in medieval Europe featured
highly accentuate d visual contrasts, not only between the wealthy (sumptuously decked out in
lavishly coloured costumes, silks and gold, and silver trim) and the poor (often dressed in sparse
tatters) but also among people of various professions. Often political affiliatio n or protection by

noble and powerful families was visually translated into the use of specific colours, symbols, and
clothing worn as distinctive signs in what is defined as livery. In short, in medieval society,
clothing served not only to show the socia l hierarchy but also to represent the small divisions
between the different strains and the different power groups: "luxury garments and objects served
to build, maintain and reinforce collective identities ".12
The clothing, however, had a high cost and, a lso, whoever wanted a new dress had to "have
it made". You started with knitting. In many cases the raw material – which used to be wool and
linen – was produced at home, spun by wives and daughters, and woven by husbands. Silk only
had access to a limited number of wealthy and began to be produced in Europe from the fourteenth
century. The same can be said for cotton, predominantly imported until the second half of the 17th
century when European production began to expand.
Fabrics, especially wool, were us ed to be felted, then carded to make them more uniform
and finally dyed in specialized workshops. Instead, the production of higher quality fabrics and
garments was carried out in the city: it was necessary to go to a shop for merchants of wool cloths
and tailors, to furriers and preposterous (they made jackets called doublets); For the less affluent
were clothing stores and other sellers of second -hand clothing.13
The cost of a suit was considerable compared to what we pay now for any garment. A
significant part of the total expenditure derived from the material itself. On the other hand, the
clothing had a lesser impact on the price, although it was also expensive since it required repeated
adjustments and many tests by the client. Mass -produced clothing wa s scarce. Most of the
costumes were made by hand at home or tailor -made by tailors and tailors: producing garments
that did not fit the client’s body would have meant a tremendous waste of very expensive material.
Buying a new suit was not, therefore, a wh im, but a planned activity that was often coincided with
the most important civic or religious festivities, or with weddings and funerals. It required that it
be decided beforehand so that there would be time to choose the fabric and make the garment.
What is the relationship between clothing and fashion? Fashion is interpreted as a form of
wardrobe change over time. The beginning of this change occurs during the fourteenth century
when the male silhouette begins to differ from the female one. Until the beg inning of the fourteenth
century, men and women wore long tunics or shirts that were worn without a belt. For example,
Dante is represented, in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, in a long red garment
(and distinctive headdress) not unlike what a woman of that time used to wear.

12 Baker, Charles Arnold. 2015. The Companion to British History: London, Routledge.
13 Collier Frick, C. 2002. Dressing Renaissance Florence: Famil ies, Fortunes, and Fine Clothing: Baltimore. Johns
Hopkins University Press, p. 64.

A visual analysis, even shallow, of the paintings and frescoes of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, shows the change in men’s clothing.
Youngsters prefer shorter garments with tight -fitting knitted underpants, shoes in the form
of simple socks with soles, and padded doublets that, with the use of a belt around the waist,
formed a kind of skirt over the stocking.
Instead, women continued to wear long garments, sometimes with tails, that enhanced the
bust – especially the breast, often modestly shown through the neckline. The woman never
appeared in public without a headdress: a simple linen veil for low -ranking women; more
sophisticated shapes and materials, with lace and gold thread, in the case of wo men of high lineage.
This transformation was possible thanks to some technical innovations that we currently
take for granted.
First, garments began to be manufactured using sewing processes. The straight dress, in the
form of a tunic, was replaced by garm ents that had to adapt to the figure of the body, which
required more work and knowledge on the part of the tailors. Knitting and crocheting techniques
began to spread: to make leggings or a sweater, it was no longer necessary to produce the textile
materi al, cut it and sew it, but instead, a procedure could be adopted that allowed the fabric to be
created while the garment was constructed –what we currently call three -dimensional technique.
The advantage of knitted garments and clothing is that, due to the ir elasticity, they adapt to body
shapes. Finally, buttons and other types of closure, starting with simple needles, were increasingly
common, as evidenced by numerous archaeological finds.
From the beginning of the fourteenth century, therefore, there was a difference in the
making of garments for one or the other gender . The researchers consider this change to be one of
the key phenomena in fashion history for two reasons.
Above all, gender differentiation in clothing remains a distinctive feature of fashion and
gender relations to this day: men and women are not only biologically distinct, but reaffirm their
physical, psychological, and sexual difference through clothes. Secondly, it is con sidered that the
differentiation of male from female clothing was for both genders the first step towards a dynamic
vision of the wardrobe that began to diversify and diversify over time. This diversification –of
forms and tastes – was also imposed thanks t o the appearance of new contexts in which to show
and dress fashion.
Between the year 1000 and the plague of 1348, the European population almost tripled
and cities, especially in the rich areas of the south from Europe, they increased in number and size.
New cities and more populated urban centres developed thanks to the increase of agricultural
productivity, which allowed a growing number of people to break free from the land and trade and
various craft activities. The city at the end of the Age Media (1 4th-15th centuries) became a place

of social dynamism, of excellence in the production of artefacts of all kinds and short – and long –
term trade.
The cities of medieval Europe were not only centres of production and trade, but also a
consumer. There you co uld be buying the best fabrics, there tailors, goldsmiths and other artisans
made and produced fashionable dresses, necklaces, and other objects. The city was also the place
to show off new suits, especially for the elite, which increasingly often chose to live within urban
walls. So, in the Middle Ages, the city became the perfect setting for the creation and
representation of new fashions. It is also the place where the principle of the medieval hierarchy
is questioned, in which the social status of an in dividual was determined by his birth. In the urban
space, contrary to what happened in the fief, the social condition is determined by wealth rather
than by the cradle, and this is how elegant, expensive and fashionable clothes can lead to an
improvement i n social status. of wealthy but short -line people, such as wealthy merchants and
craftsmen.
Fashion becomes an instrument of social rivalry in a strongly hierarchical society. Such
rivalry is based on the goal of appearing better than you are. In this cas e, it is true that ‘habit makes
the monk ’, in the sense that it gives access to social contexts from which, otherwise, one would be
excluded. This interpretation of the birth of fashion has been somewhat criticized.
The city, at least until the end of the Modern Age, was an exception to the rule, since the
majority of the population was linked to the land. Up to eight people in ten lived in the countryside
and were engaged in food production to feed a growing population. Urban fashion only
characterized a m inority of the European population between the fourteenth and eighteenth
centuries. Historians are cautious even when they stress that the limits of fashion expansion were
determined not only by the number of people who could participate in this new phenom enon but
also by the ability to produce fashion objects. The percentage of artisans about the total population
was very small and even more modest was the number of people who possessed the professional
capacity and expertise necessary to produce high -quality clothing and accessories.
We have left nineteenth -century man before the dilemma of how to relate to fashion. In the
19th century, fashion became feminine, but it is not correct to defend – as has often been done –
that for this reason it loses importa nce and becomes capricious and futile, all of the characteristics
attributed to a phenomenon increasingly considered as the prerogative of the ‘weaker sex’. The
history of the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century shows tha t
fashion, perhaps precisely because she becomes a woman, becomes complex and fascinating.

Flügel14 had already considered women within his model of the ‘great renunciation’,
although he maintained that for them it had been a passing phenomenon. The change in clothing
induced by the French Revolution had also reached women. All citizens – without gender
difference – were asked to embrace the ideas of the Revolution and to wear dresses consistent with
the new ideals of equality and civic participation. Flügel read in this key the changes in the
feminine silhouette between 1790 and 1800: the precious silks, the side skirts, and the sophisticated
hairstyles were finished, which were replaced by muslin dresses without supports, loose hair and
few jewels and neckl aces. The same had happened with men’s clothing, but while it remained for
the next two centuries in line with the new ideals, in the 1830s – and 1840s -women’s clothing
returned to the old canons: women put on corsets again, abundant quantity of fabrics wit h various
supports, jewellery, elaborate hairstyles and hats of various kinds. The woman of the mid –
nineteenth century was perhaps more ‘caged’ than the woman of the late eighteenth century.
This return to fashion is, however, a ‘great defeat’, since women renounce both equalities
with the other gender and an active position in the public sphere. By embracing fashion, he
withdraws into the domestic and private sphere.

2.3 The development of Make -up usage in the fashion world

Since ancient times, colour has been used in paintings, sculptures, and makeup as a way to
highlight the art and feel of the human being.
The importance of colour lies in its effects on the perception and behaviour of human
beings. Each colour connotes a feeling or emotion that, in general, is usually common in all human
beings. Therefore, since ancient times, colours have been used in different ways. One of the main
uses is in makeup, but there are others.
In ancient China, colours were assigned to each o f the cardinal points (red, blue, white, and
black) and yellow, the colour of the Chinese empire, to the centre. From the coats of arms of noble
families, the choice of the countries’ flags to the uniforms worn by soldiers, colour has been used
as a way to represent the essence of a family or demonstrate courage, ferocity or instil fear in his
enemies That is, emotions a value or an emotion linked to them.
Knowing the importance of colour and its meaning, many ancient women and men have
been decorating thei r bodies with bold colours. In other words, humans have been using colour as
a beautifier for a long time to highlight specific aspects of their anatomy. Also, today, many
societies use colours in makeup intending to draw attention to the opposite sex.

14 Flügel, J.C. 1969. [ed. 1930]. The Psychology of Clothes: New York, International Universities Press.

The intention of makeup has always been to show a younger appearance and try to get as
close as possible to the ideal of beauty in society. It was also used to demonstrate the social status
to which you belonged (only the nobles used beauty products) since in the past having a dark
complexion was related to long hours of work in the sun and with the peasantry. Therefore, the
paleness showed that you were part of the royalty or the noble classes.
Thus, cosmetics were composed that, on some occasions, were even toxic. As in art, colours
were carefully chosen to get the most out of some parts of the body.
The kohl, for example, is one of the cosmetics with the most history behind it. Both men
and women applied it to the eyes to protect them from the sun and to bea utify them. Its application
has been so widespread in the countries of the Middle East, Africa and part of Asia that this
cosmetic has lasted until today. This black eye makeup was toxic, and its composition varied
depending on where you were.
Today, cosme tics are not harmful and are much more controlled. Now, they are achieved
through the mixing of chemical compounds and the compositions have been greatly improved.
Some of them come from natural sources and others are synthetic. Actress Gwyneth Paltrow
recently launched a campaign to prevent the use of lead in women’s lipsticks, promoting more
natural cosmetics. The reality is that today it is very difficult to find a toxic product, but in the past,
it was the most common.
In ancient times, most cosmetics c ame from vegetation and animals, except labelled -or
basic lead carbonate – for clear skin and kohl. As we already told in the article on the rouge and its
history, it derives from a mixture made in Ancient Egypt that consisted of seeds, red ochre, and
different fruits.
Egyptian women and men made up their eyes. Its purpose was not only aesthetic since the
kohl also served to protect the eyes of the solo and as a disinfectant for eye diseases.
They prepared all kinds of ointments with what they had access to . The first red cosmetic,
which we have already discussed in another article, came from a moss, the focus, with which
litmus was prepared. From the animals in the Ancient Age, it was used from the sweat of the rams
purified to the crocodile dung to remove certain spots produced in the skin. Over time, the
production of cosmetics became more sophisticated, but sadly, the toxic substances that made them
up continued to be neglected.
For many years the use of wigs, both in men and women, was due to hair loss c aused by
the toxicity of some beauty products that served to lighten the skin or harmful hair products. Some
women used sulfuric acid mixed with rhubarb to dye their hair, a tremendously corrosive mixture
that resulted in hair loss.

The perception of makeu p in society has also varied throughout history. Queen Victoria
banned makeup from her court, declaring it publicly impolite. Victoria believed that makeup was
only used by prostitutes and actors. This generated, after a time when makeup and hygiene
produc ts had spread remarkably, a considerable decrease in the commercialization of cosmetics in
England. Years later they would be commercialized again, and the range of beauty products would
be expanded to all kinds of makeup, perfumes, and beautifying creams.
Luckily, over time, there has also been an awareness of the dangers that can be posed by
beauty products composed of harmful elements. In Spain, for instance, there are organizations
specifically dedicated to the control of this type of product, such as the Spanish Agency for
Medicines and Health Products. They are responsible for ensuring the safety of the products that
men and women around the world apply to our skins every day.
Today, in a civilized or first world, the goal of makeup is to make wome n (and
exceptionally some men) look more attractive, with a youthful and healthy appearance, hiding
imperfections and enhancing beauty. There was a stage in which makeup and cosmetics, in general,
we're moving away from mother nature to go deeper and deepe r into the field of chemical
artificiality and even harmful substances.
In recent years there has been a boom in 'organic and natural' products made with herbal
extracts with which regenerators, moisturizers, scars, antibacterial, and even UV radiation
protectors are manufactured. Mineral makeup has been used for decades, but in recent years it has
become a phenomenon. The reality is that its components (minerals like mica, zinc, zinc oxide,
and titanium dioxide) are the same ingredients that have been used in traditional cosmetics for
years. Some people speak wonders of light, long -lasting, and natural effects, and others who
complain that mineral makeup is dry, irritating, and accentuates wrinkles.
The dermo -aesthetic has also contributed to creating a con cealer or camouflage makeup
designed to improve the patient’s appearance, reshapes the face reducing the most unpleasant
features and enhancing the most flattering ones. It has a high covering power, they are opaquer,
waterproof, and are designed to adhere to the skin evenly but without being occlusive. They allow
concealing defects such as scars, erythema, pigmentary macules, nevi, and vitiligo. When applied
to large surfaces they are called tone correctors and present as compact fluids, creams, or makeup.
The current trend is the preparation of makeups with additional properties so that they are
a product of continuity in the treatment of the skin. The most used assets are of the anti -ageing
type, either vitamins or plant derivatives. Substances with a ten sor effect are also added, both of
plant origin (proteins and their derivatives) and synthetic origin. We can also find moisturizing
actives or substances with emollient properties. In make -up for adolescents, you can find sebum

regulating active ingredien ts or specific active ingredients for this group of consumers. Sunscreens
are among the usual ingredients in this type of cosmetics.
I think the current moment is the best of all there has been in makeup. We have a great
variety of products, of improved qu ality; We also have a large number of already known and
experienced options.
Today, makeup is used as a "weapon" of seduction, there is no doubt that a well -made face
is more attractive because with it you can enhance the most beautiful features and hide t he least
graceful ones. To enhance beauty, seduce, and look younger.
Every moment and situation require a type of makeup, according to the clothing and mood
of the person wearing it. For instance, I distinguish between:
– softer daytime makeup enhances the n atural features of the face and hides minor
imperfections.
– evening makeup is more intense, like the previous one, enhances the features of the
face and corrects defects, the tones are more intense and marked.
– bridal makeup is very similar to daytime makeup , but more elaborate cosmetics are
used so that they resist the whole day of the event, party make -ul in the end.
– fantasy makeup is usually thematic, applying a drawing or any other creative reason to
the face or any part of the body.
– make -up to interpret characters or for characterizations in the theatre, circus, cinema,
television.
– make -up for models, fashion shows, photographs, advertising.
– make -up is commonly used by women looking to add colour, vitality, and beauty to
their faces. However, it is also used in work settings (such as television) where its
usefulness has to do with giving colour to the face, lighting it, matching impurities, etc.,
applying to both men and women.
– make -up to communicate membership in a certain urban tribe.
– permanent mak e-up and tattoos: permanent make -up is not positioned as an alternative
to traditional decorative cosmetics applied topically but seeks to be one more
complement to it.
Cosmetics today have a scientific and technological basis that translates into the effi cacy
and safety of products with their specific functions. There is a large collection of creams, makeups,
perfumes, soaps, gels, and so on. Currently, the characteristic is the variety and the constant
appearance of innovations in cosmetics. The vast majo rity of women use cosmetics and even the
number of men who use them is increasing. Currently, there are also specialized products for men.
Among the different types of cosmetics, we can mention makeup foundations (which offers a

smoother appearance to the skin), shadows and eyeliners (to develop a deeper look), and lipstick
(which allows lips to thicken), concealers, etc.
Makeup is not only made to highlight beauty but to take care of the skin. Today's woman
has a more careful face and a more natural colour , with a tendency towards minimalism. More
emphasis is placed on fresh, clean makeup that hides the visible signs of ageing and can go back
in time. Words like fresh, beneficial, pure, natural, anti -ageing have become part of today's makeup
vocabulary.
The triumph of the 'nude' tones together with the tender and childish effect provided by this
'look' has managed to elevate it to the red carpet. However, achieving a unified and radiant
complexion is not an easy task. The important thing is to wear a fresh a nd natural look, in which
cosmetic products are barely noticeable, although we do wear them. The keys:
➢ Correct hydration. The first step is basic and inescapable. After a correct cleaning, apply
your daily cream. Fundamental, do not forget the eye contour: this area especially reveals
the signs of tiredness and fatigue.
➢ Mattifies the skin. Then, nothing better than a product that minimizes pores and soothes
the skin, thus correcting small imperfections.
➢ The base, better natural. If you are not a friend of m akeup funds, go for a BB Cream, the
cosmetic that manages to improve the complexion in one step.
➢ Use a good concealer. Camouflaging dark circles is essential to achieve a ‘good face’
effect. Tip: Apply it to small touches and blend with the help of a brush , you will get a
perfect finish.
➢ Catch the light. Use an illuminator to highlight the light areas: forehead, cheekbones, and
chin.
➢ Pink complexion. Don’t forget the touch of the blush to subtly highlight the cheekbones.
Corals and pale roses will be your best allies.
➢ Golden or ‘beige’ shades. The look is tinged with earthy tones, almost imperceptible. Try
not to over -emphasize the eyelashes, a subtle mask is enough -do not insist, just a single
pass-.
➢ Translucent powders. In addition to killing glitte r, they are so light they are barely
noticeable. Apply them evenly all over the face.
➢ Irresistible kisses. On the lips, a neutral and soft colour is better. Use a ‘gloss’ to achieve a
more wet effect’ but be careful when choosing shades: lips should not ca pture all the
attention of the ‘look’.
➢ The final touch. To extend the duration of the makeup, sprinkle a fixing mist 40 centimetres
from the face.

It is increasingly common to find this product in makeup lines. It is sprayed on the entire
face including th e eyes (before applying the mascara). It is done at a distance of about 40
cm to create a pleasant, uniform, and light mist. A thin protective layer is deposited on top
of the makeup, which will make it longer and more stable.
Did you know that the beauty industry invests more money than the pharmaceutical
industry?
The fashion and cosmetics sector has such a high volume of business, that the possibilities
of creating a business, even if the competition is high, have a much greater probability of success
than if we invest in another less crowded sector.
One of the factors that have caused the beauty industry to boost its turnover has been the
internet. Not only for social networks but for the amount of information available. The fact that
everyone can access professional "secrets" has changed the behaviour habits of the population.
Also, the fact of having a greater visual exposure in front of thousands of people has made
many individuals want to improve their physical appearance to project a positive persona l image.
But without a doubt, what has most boosted beauty businesses are professional websites.
One of the factors that have caused the beauty industry to boost its turnover has been the
internet. Not only for social networks but for the amount of informa tion available. The fact that
everyone can access professional "secrets" has changed the behaviour habits of the population.
Besides, the fact of having a greater visual exposure in front of thousands of people has
made many individuals want to improve the ir physical appearance to project a positive personal
image. But without a doubt, what has most boosted beauty businesses are professional websites.
Every so often we see new milestones in the beauty industry. One of the best known has
been the creation of a cosmetic and fashion empire from scratch by Kylie Jenner. This American
teenager, famous for being 'Kim Kardashian's sister', has become the highest -earning teenager in
the world, through photos of her makeup on Instagram. But has it been Instagram who has
generated these sales? The truth is that, although Instagram has helped her to be popular, what has
made the difference has been the creation of her website.
Creating a professional website has allowed the projection of a mature image, distancing
herse lf from other influencers who do not have that support, and also launch her cosmetic products
store.
Boosting the development and implementation of professional web pages is a necessary
effort to create a link with our customers and make them feel as comfo rtable as possible while
browsing our online store.
A priori it may not seem something important, but the difference between having our
website compared to other girls who launch their collections, as collaboration within the websites

of other brands, is i n the percentage of benefits. While a person who collaborates with a brand can
take between 3 and 15% (this percentage is only reached by very popular people), having your
online store, the percentage of benefits is set by yourself, being an average of bet ween 30 and 40%.
The beauty and cosmetics industry, combined with the advantages of technology, opens a
new panorama for merchants and consumers, projecting a good future for brands. Physical points
and social networks are not enough to be closer to custom ers or offer a quality service. Now you
need to have another cover letter, more accessible and general: a web page.
Even though designers and magazines are considered to impose the star garments, a study
reveals that it is the consumer who dictates the 'mu st-have' of the wardrobe.
Fashion trends no longer depend on the industry, but the consumer. Designers and
magazines have lost the power to lead the way in fashion, a power that now rests with the
population. The new consumption habits and the new structur e of the sector, dominated by large
retails, have turned the system around and have made it the customer who determines what will
be taken and how each season.
This spring highlights suede and denim, floral patterns, and citrus tones. The flared pants
and the fringes triumph again, and it is that in the coming months -and seasons – fashion revives
the aesthetics of the 70s. And yes, this has been seen on the catwalks and even the last fashion
weeks of the main cities of Fashion – Paris, Milan, and New York – made it clear that this will
continue to be the case during the coming fall and winter. But even though fashion gurus say so,
they are not the architects of that message.
Trends are set by the consumer because if there is something that matters to the fas hion
industry today, that is selling. Fashion design conceived as art, creation, and innovation has been
relegated by the need for survival, that is, to have benefits. The companies and brands produce
according to the tastes of the clients and that is anal ysed through exhaustive market studies. Thus,
if a garment, no matter how much it appears on the most international catwalks, does not convince,
it will not become a trend.
And of course, in all this scenario it is worth highlighting the relevance of a new actor:
bloggers or prescribers. As true opinion leaders, they have taken over the influence that the great
fashion magazines and the main designers on the planet could have had in their day. Currently,
they dictate which garments sweep each season – somet imes for their pleasure, others for contracts
with brands. The world of fashion is changing and is exclusively oriented towards satisfying the
consumer, leaving behind the artistic origin of the design.
Global spending on everything related to the world of fashion is estimated at a trillion
dollars. This huge industry is governed by a series of marketing techniques that are worth
dissecting. In recent decades, the fashion world seems to have colonized every corner of our

environment. Our cars, our p hones, our kitchens, even the places where we have fun seem to have
succumbed to the vagaries of fashion. We cannot underestimate the importance of it in today’s
society: apart from its economic relevance, clothing and accessories are the expressions of ho w
we feel, how we see ourselves, and how we would like others to treat us. Even those who confess
not to be interested in fashion are forced to confront it day by day. Understanding how this sector
works will be interesting for all those who want to master techniques to conquer the minds of
consumers.
We live in an era in which fashion has an unusual presence in society. You just have to
open a magazine or sit in front of the TV to realize that fashion brands flood everything with their
messages. But what i s it that makes these ubiquitous brands conquer consumers: image,
advertising, or marketing?
Today, very few people still believe that traditional marketing alone is capable of
influencing consumer purchasing decisions. They want to know what is behind a b rand, what it
can offer them in exchange for their money. Many times, it is simply a matter of value: the best
quality for the best price. But when people buy a garment from a famous designer, what they want
is to pay a high price for feeling part of the h istory behind that brand. For many designers, the
secret is to create a kind of novel with which people feel identified and can pay to feel like the
protagonist of the story.

III. The influence of Make -up in the fashion industry

The cosmetic industry not only builds on the overall fashion trend but looks beyond fashion
trends to offer quality products that improve everyone's quality of life.
When we talk about cosmetics, we often think of creams, makeup and hair dyes, and above
all wi th super innovative formulas that help us feel better. But cosmetics is a very old thing. So
old that we should go back to prehistory to find its origins. At that time humans already used some
products of nature, such as clay or animal fat to put on makeup in some acts or rituals that were
celebrated, such as funerals. This is how the history of this sector began, which until today has
made a huge leap. And today we are experiencing what is known as the renaissance of cosmetics,
thanks to new technologies a nd the rise of social networks.
Cosmetics have become an essential element for everyday life because treatments are
increasingly precise and of higher quality and help improve the quality of life of people, helping
them to take care of their skin, face and hair among others.
Due to this reason, the cosmetic industry is one of the most powerful and one of the most
committed to research and the use of new technologies. Technology has made it possible to carry
out highly complex investigations that have comple tely transformed the world of cosmetics. And
social networks have been the loudspeaker of all these advances.
That is why we are witnessing the renaissance of cosmetics, an increasingly precise
industry, of higher quality, and with better ways to connect with its public. But what has changed?
The use of new technological systems has allowed, on the one hand, the development of
much more complex research and projects that offer solutions of higher quality and better effect.
The industry dedicates a good part of its investments to R&D to offer ever better solutions.
It is precisely this investment in technology that allows us to develop increasingly
personalized products. That is to say, a hair dye is not offered for all women or cream for dry skin
without more, instead, personalized cosmetics solutions are offered.
Another factor that has contributed to the renaissance of cosmetics is the appearance of the
so-called natural, ecological or green cosmetic. These are products made from natural ingredient s.
For this, companies have also needed to invest a lot of money in research and find the ideal
ingredients to offer the perfect product.
The cosmetic industry not only builds on the overall fashion trend but looks beyond fashion
trends to offer quality pr oducts that improve everyone's quality of life. And in fact, this is what
consumer demands, which increasingly spend more on products in this industry. According to data
from the National Association of Perfumery and Cosmetics, Europeans spend an average o f 150 €
a year on cosmetic products.

3.1 Psychological influence of Make -up in fashion

67% of ladies in Europe put on makeup daily. This figure supposes almost 16 million
people with their 16 million reasons to do it, although there is a reason that stand s out above the
rest: verse and feeling better. Using makeup has been shown to have effects beyond appearance.
For example, confidence increases. It's the so -called "lipstick effect," which appearance
psychology has proven can improve college grades or hel p you progress on the job. However, one
of the most immediate effects of wearing (or not wearing) makeup is not in oneself, but in others.
The first impression is forged in a matter of seconds and it involves many elements such as
clothing, attitude or spe ech, but also makeup.
Generally, we put on makeup according to our way of being, but this does not necessarily
imply that others know how to read from our faces what we are. Furthermore, this interpretation
is different in men and women, according to resea rch from the University of Stirling, Scotland.
Although most participants, regardless of gender, claimed that female makeup faces were more
attractive than those without makeup, when asked to add qualifiers to their judgment, opinions
were divided. For the m, makeup added prestige; for them, it was a sign of dominance. The reason,
the researchers concluded, was that women believed that girls with makeup "would be more
attractive to men," which made them jealous, and, worse, they assumed they would be more
promiscuous.
These immediate opinions, formulated in a matter of seconds and only from the image, are
unconscious and practically uncontrollable. What we can control is what we transmit to others
through our makeup, knowing the different effects that psychol ogy has shown.
It is not a legend that classic rouge always favours. A curious study published in the
International Journal of Psychological Studies found, in several bars in France, how girls with red
lipstick received more attention from the men there than those with pink, brown or nude lips.
An awake look is associated with youth, and makeup – especially mascara – can help
achieve this. Besides, research published in the International Journal of Cosmetic Science showed
that applying eye makeup wa s the beauty gesture that most enhanced attractiveness, according to
men and women.
Many investigations have tried to explain this relationship, focusing, fundamentally, on the
repercussion that applying makeup in one way or another can have in the workpla ce. The Procter
& Gamble group partnered with several universities to verify that when they wore makeup, the
participants seemed, from outsiders, more competent, pleasant and reliable, as well as, once again,
more attractive.

As with the eyes, a rosy hue o n the cheeks takes years away because, as psychologists
explain, it transmits better health. On the other hand, according to a study in the Emotions
publication, wearing blush makes you seem more friendly and a person you can trust.
Science has shown that popular belief that the makeup that feels best is natural. The no –
makeup trend, in which neither lips nor eyes have many colours, maybe the best option to enhance
your attractiveness in front of men or women, according to different research reports. Howeve r,
life 3.0 is not the same.
When viewed through a mobile screen, as in social networks, marked eyes or painted lips
defeat the natural look, and with a clear advantage. According to the dating app Zoosk, girls who
wear more intense makeup on their photos receive up to three times more messages than those
who preferred naturalness.
Recently, a survey was published confirming the importance of taking care of your hands.
According to Harvey Water Softeners Laboratories, not having them well hydrated can add u p to
nine years. They serve as a cover letter on many occasions and the manicure also has a fundamental
weight. Applying the psychology of colour to it, we can know, for example, that red enamel
transmits security, pink, sweetness and black, power and rebe llion.

3.2 Consumption of cosmetics in different age categories

Currently, many variables affect the purchasing decision in consumers. Among which is
his age range, his gender, his purchasing power and the environment in which he finds himself.
these ele ments mark the trend in the different categories of the market. For this reason, some
characteristics of current consumers are shown below.
Thanks to the high supply of products, their innovation and their technology, the current
consumer demands, more and more, articles with greater benefits; also, look for personalization in
these. In this way, companies generate products that meet specific needs.
Likewise, the increase in youth emancipation in men and women has caused greater
concern in the physical aspe ct, generating an increase in the consumption of cosmetics in this
country. Due to these changes, this study will show how the social role of women affects the
consumption of makeup.
One of the key factors to consider is the introduction of women into the workplace. For
this reason, a duality is generated between your personal life and your professional life, since you
want to feel satisfied with these two aspects of your life. At the same time, society demands that
she be a good mother, wife, professional and also follow the beauty guidelines of the moment.

The social claim is reflected in the media, advertising, cinema, which show women who
manage to fulfil their work and personal functions. On top of that, they are always arranged with
perfect hairstyles and makeup. However, not all women have the facility to look good all the time
without the use of cosmetics that help them meet the stereotypes posed by the media, so, every day
there is a greater demand for makeup and, at the same time. At the same time, the supply of
cosmetic brands is increasing.
It is obvious that women who comply with these beauty canons are more accepted and their
physical appearance affects not only their personal life but their professional life. Following Rose
Weitz (2003), beauty is seen by women today as a negative power, because in a world still ruled
by men, it is intuited that a woman's success is determined by her beauty and not by their
intellectual abilities. "Attractiveness, typically brings more marital prospects an d friendships,
higher salaries and higher school grades".15
This is how a woman adapts her body to social and consumer requirements since her
appearance can give her a sense of control over her life in front of others. However, other people's
reactions to t heir physical appearance are unpredictable, so women are subject to the perception
of the people around them.
For this reason, makeup brands seek to fit women by offering them different lifestyles. The
above can be seen in the advertising of brands such as Esika or Avon, and those who seek to give
women what they want: greater freedom and independence and plurality in the roles they play
daily. This can be seen in the slogans of these brands, an example of which is Avon who uses the
phrase "Live tomorrow" o r Esika who is "Who do you want to be today?
Therefore, the consumption of makeup in women of an adult category is determined by the
care of the beauty and the exaltation of the same. In this way, brands help women find the makeup
that suits them best, dep ending on skin colour and hair. To this end, not only advice points are
generated but there is also virtual support with the supervision of a person specialized in the
subject.
It is no secret that in recent generations there have been strong changes in be haviour by
adolescents. However, the Mexican agency De La Riva, for instance, evidences this more
forcefully. One of its conclusions is the change in aspirational models. For the year 2001, the
values and patterns of behaviour were marked by the father, the mother and the family nucleus in
general. On the contrary, in today's life, the models of success are the stereotypes of independent,
successful and self -esteemed women, in the background are the artists and finally the older
brothers and the family.

15 Weitz Rose. 2003. The politics of women's bodies: Sexuality, appearance, and behaviour: New York. Oxford
University Press, p. 133.

In this way, the people who are admired by this segment are people with natural,
spontaneous, irreverent and persevering attitudes. However, these people must be public figures,
as close adults do not generate admiration on the part of adolescents.
Likewise , young people, being in a stage of construction of their identity, need to express
themselves with all the tools they can have on hand. According to the research agency, mentioned
above, adolescents are thirsty for freedom, but not freedom in the adult wo rld where there are no
restrictions, but a freedom to be themselves without feeling the critical eye of the elderly, freedom
to express oneself, freedom to live together.
Shopping malls are places for young people to meet, they are spaces that, in addition to
offering services, are a place that gives status, calls for the consumption of films, clothes, drinks,
food, etc. It is the preferred place for today's teens because of its ease of access and the number of
benefits it offers.
It is natural that for adolescents it is a difficult aspect to understand at the outset, despite
the amount of information about it, however, it is not so simple given the connotations and what
sexuality generates in the lives of adolescents is, on the contrary, quite complex.
Adolescents see in their body a means to attract and maintain a relationship, "As the
unmistakable contours as a female body emerges, a girl's body becomes defined in cultural terms
as an object of men's fantasies and desires." According to Tolman, teenager s discover how their
bodies can come to have power over men. Also, in this study, two youth groups were interviewed,
one living in New York City and the other in the suburbs on the outskirts of this city.
According to the intention they have regarding the ir relationships and what they want from
them, which define the presentation of their body to their social environment, always keeping in
mind, that it is not well seen that a woman has desires. or provoke them, therefore, their desires
depend on men.16
As you can see, the way we dress and put on make -up is a way for teenagers to express
themselves and communicate with the world around them. Thanks to the diversification in fashion
and the styles that prevail, teenagers have a variety of styles to choose fro m, choosing at the same
time what they want to project from themselves. It is necessary to clarify that this style can change
within adolescence itself because this is a stage in which they are discovering themselves and
building their identity, which make s it not defined from the beginning. young people create their
styles in everyday life, it is on the street, in cafes, outside high schools, on public transport, in
shopping malls … all over the city, the youthful expression is all around us.17

16 Idem.
17 Weitz Rose. 2003. The politics of women's bodies: Sexuality, appearance, and behaviour: New York. Oxford
Univer sity Press, p. 100.

For this r eason, young women prefer brands that innovate, that propose styles and trends
since they feel a certain identification with them, especially because it generates a brand
exclusivity that innovates and therefore becomes something aspirational for teenagers .
Regardless of the segment to which it is addressed, it is linked to the social role of women,
the physical and emotional function of makeup and brands respond to this by looking for women
to identify with them and feel that the product covers your needs.
On the other hand, the consumption that occurs, responds to the production and
commercialization of products, that is to say to the supply of the market. However, taking into
account the consumer segments studied, the market has a small supply for the you th target
compared to the supply it has for the older markets, because, while adolescent girls have 4 cosmetic
houses, the Larger targets have 12 cosmetic houses concentrated in them.
On the other hand, it can be seen that the media show, in juvenile aspir ational models a
consumption of makeup, therefore, according to the description of adolescent consumption, it
would be natural for young women to follow these patterns of behaviour, however, not it is
possible to ensure this since the figures and studies i n the category focus on brands for higher
targets.
Also, the advertising that these brands do is quite scarce, because, as shown before, the
investment in advertising that cosmetic companies make, they do for products that are aimed at
women over 25 years.
According to this, it is disturbing to know if teenage girls are potential consumers of
makeup, what they expect from it, how they use it if they use it. And above all, if it would be worth
investing in this market and what needs could be met in this segm ent.
Wanting to investigate these aspects that were left empty at the time of the research, then
qualitative market research will be carried out where tools such as the Focus Group and personal
interviews will be used to decipher these concerns.

3.3. The need for a fashion brand as a generator of differentiating content

Fashion can be treated from different approaches, including the reason why we dress, the
way we do it and the factors that influence us when choosing the garments, we want to combine.
Within this concept of fashion, we must not forget the industrial part that involves a whole process
in which several companies work, successively dedicated to creating a design, scaling, marking,
cutting, manufacturing, quality control, storage a nd shipping. And, of course, what interests us
most: during this process, marketing and communication decisions are made, taking into account
the final consumer and the characteristics and image of the product and its brand.

Today, numerous authors, such a s Fine and Leopold, like Braham, argue that fashion is not
the only culture, but also industry, it is not only about consumption, but also production.
Beyond the catwalks and shows on the catwalk or the appearance of celebrities associated
with the brand, there are also tools for marketing, finance, strategic alliances, production,
journalism, trend -hunting, etc., as in any other industry. But we are in a sector where it is necessary
for brands to constantly reinvent themselves without neglecting their own identity, to remain in
the market season after season. This fashion has been characterized by sudden and sometimes
cyclical changes caused by society, the economic situation and the environment.
When we talk about the products that the fashion industry gen erates, we are not just talking
about clothing:
The fashion industry encompasses everything that is sold in a fashion store with or without
a recognizable brand. Fashion designers are both product managers and innovators; They may
work as freelancers or on a design team that belongs, for example, to a retail business or integrated
into a manufacturer or agent supply chain. However, the fashion business is not based solely on
the function of design: different areas – such as trend prediction, product develop ment,
manufacturing, retail, marketing, branding (creation and management of branding) and promotion
– combine to create a thriving industry that employs millions of people worldwide.
To understand the relevance of the brand in the world of clothing, it is necessary to
understand the different structures existing within the fashion industry. We talk about clothing,
and not just fashion, to bring together all categories, from luxury collections to textiles.
Moving from history to the present, the fashion ind ustry was divided into three different
categories based on its manufacture, these are haute couture, ready -to-wear and fashion for the
market of masses. Its characteristics are the following:
Haute couture specifically consists of the design and constructi on of high -quality garments
by the main fashion houses. In its most refined form, the term is a name protected by law.
The haute couture collections are exclusively designed by fashion houses for private
clients, but they do not focus only on the quality o f clothing. They are high -quality garments and
excellent finishes. The reduced production is given by the concept of its design, by the time and
dedication required by a highly skilled workforce. The production is between ten and twenty pieces
per model, w hich generates a high final cost. The haute couture collections are exhibited twice a
year with about thirty seats.
For a brand to be considered haute couture, its design house must be invited to join the
Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture. This is an o rganism governed by the French Ministry of
Culture, located in Paris and made up of a committee of designers. Currently, this chamber is made

up of about twenty houses, including Armani, Christian Dior and Chanel, who is the first interested
in enforcing t he organization's strict regulations.
A member of this Haute Couture chamber must:
a) Design custom clothing for private clients, with one or more tests.
b) Maintain an atelier (design studio) in Paris that employs at least fifteen people,
c) Present to th e French press, twice a year, a collection of at least thirty -five models, both
day and night suits.
The ready -to-wear designs are characterized by high -quality fabrics and finishes. We are
not talking about garments that are tailor -made, although many rea dy-to-wear collections are also
exclusive, limited edition and therefore high -priced. However, it is a product made in standard
sizes, something that will never happen in haute couture.
In the ready -to-wear collections, trends are more reflected, they are also collections that
are exhibited twice a year during fashion weeks, scheduled six months before shipping to stores.
The other side of luxury apparel known as ready -to-wear can be translated from the French
as prêt -à-porter according to Merriam -Webster D ictionary. The term ready -to-wear in general
refers to clothing made in a factory setting as opposed to by hand. Clothing is sold finished and in
standardized sizes allowing the democratization of luxury apparel. This term was first used in the
late 1950s.
Prices are lower than haute couture, with products intended for large -scale development.
However, its cost is increased by the need for parades and communication. The author reminds us
that some designers in this range, such as Calvin Klein, Donna Karan o r Prada, can produce
quantities of garments similar to those of the large distribution.
Ready -to-wear clothing lines were the first radical alternative to sewing pieces when they
hit boutiques in the 1960s. Yves Saint Laurent (YSL), in 1966, is considered to be the first haute
couture couturier to present a complete line of ready -to-wear, opening his shops on the Rive
Gauche in Paris.
Mass production represents the most industrialized production line and, therefore, with a
lower price. Serial manufacturing techniques were invented in the late 19th century, but it was not
until after World War II that they were imposed on haute couture.
This is because, in recent decades, as a consequence of economic globalization and the
appearance of information technologi es, the textile and clothing sector has undergone a drastic
transformation. The distance between the different agents involved in the manufacturing and
distribution process has been reduced, shortening the time from the design of a garment to its
arrival a t the store, thus creating the concept of short -circuit distribution.

The designs in this segment are based on general trends and seek inspiration from ready –
to-wear collections, to have a quick sale of the garments. This segment is also known as "prompt
fashion". The objective of chains such as Zara, Mango or Primark is to produce trend clothing in
a very short time, managing to replenish collections in no more than six weeks.
Fast fashion has been a great revolution in fashion chains. Although we tend to think of
prompt fashion as a new industry initiative, it is the development and refinement of the Yves Sant
Laurent ready -to-wear business model. Large early fashion chains began to emerge in the 1960s
such as Mary Quant, Chelsea Girl and Biba in the Unite d Kingdom, and Levi Strauss and Gap in
the United States.
In summary, the characteristics of early fashion or fast fashion are as follows: continuous
collection – it is always being designed, it is always being made, it is always selling – low cost,
regula r quality, volatile demand and short product life cycle. All this to adapt the products to the
trends set by the consumer.
Another division is based on the know -how incorporated into the business processes of the
sector. This division offers three typologi es that, in turn, define three types of actors:
1.- The Maisons or firms (for example Valentino, Gianfranco Ferrè, Calvin Klein, Paul
Smith), originally based on artistic and design qualities, with a strong orientation to the product,
today are at the forefront of production or management companies. licenses, with a very diversified
range of products. Apart from clothing, it includes accessories, perfumes, household items, etc.
2.- Industrial brands (for example, Zegna, Max Mara, Hugo Boss, Diesel), wit h both
industrial and commercial qualities, with great market orientation and an almost complete range
of products positioned in various segments.
3.- The flagship brands (whose Italian examples are Benetton and Stefanel, the American
chains Gap and the Ba nana Republic, the French chain Promod and, internationally, the Spanish
chain Zara), which encompass distribution operators, with commercial and of network
management, often able to organize the production chain from the early stages.
Within flagship bran ds, more than in the other categories, time is a key factor in the
relationship with the consumer.
In summary, and as a conclusion to the question posed in this research, we have been able
to verify that after the impact of globalization and the intensive use of information technologies,
the time has become a decisive variable in the international market for information technology.
fashion. Hence the need to structure the entire business organization and its processes around the
activity that concentrates t his information and the creation of the demanded product in the shortest
possible time. Within the previous categories, the brand fulfils different functions. In haute couture
the designer's name becomes the guarantor brand and, through the collection, all ows him to build

a universe and launch products outside of textiles. Something similar happens with ready -to-wear,
while in early fashion the objective is to sell the garment under the guarantee of the price brand
and to be in the market trend. Even in thi s category, the brand must bring elements of emotional
value to the collection.
With a production of twenty pieces for sixty models per year, it is not able to finance the
production and communication costs of the brand with its sale. However, we are in th e world of
luxury, facing luxury brands that generate products accessible to other social classes but that
maintain the aura of the initial brand.
As with fashion, the division of luxury is made from the balance between supply and
demand. Therefore, the vo lume of product that can be launched onto the market towards a specific
target is reflected in a pyramid which differentiates three levels of luxury, depending on the need
for more or less effort for consumer access:
1.- Inaccessible luxury: based on the o ffer of very few or unique products by the
manufacturer. Works of art would be found within this level. This category, within the field of
fashion, would correspond to haute couture houses.
2.- Intermediate luxury: there is a balance between production and demand. We refer to the
limited series of products. In fashion, although without limited series, intermediate luxury would
be related to the production of ready -to-wear brands.
3.- Accessible luxury: series objects that seek buyer demand. The intrinsic va lue of the
product is lower, and it will be the brand value that justifies the price differential between products
in the same category. This case would also correspond to ready -to-wear, but it would be added all
the accessible luxury products launched by haute couture brands – such as accessories, cosmetics,
perfumes, etc. – and give access to the less economically wealthy classes to the world of your
brands.
Multi -product luxury brands would operate in all these segments, although they were born
out of in accessible luxury. In each of the segments, they will have an autonomous strategy, but
they will keep coherence with the mother brand.
This will allow consumers who do not have access to the brand's high -level products, to
enjoy the brand experience from a premium product in its category, but accessible to the consumer.
A Chanel lipstick costs 30 €, which makes it a premium product in its category. But a consumer
who cannot access the Chanel Boy bag, for 3,500 €, can access the brand through a lower -cost
product. If we look for a relationship between marketing techniques and these luxury typologies,
we will see that:
1.- Inaccessible Luxury. There is intuitive marketing. The product is sought after by a
knowledgeable buyer and a high effort of persuasion is not necessary. It is only necessary to ensure

that the information on the existence of the product reaches the public that has sufficient
purchasing power and is aware of its value. This would be the case of auction catalogues with
unique pieces or, at Cha nel, it would be Haute Couture, with fifty models and three hundred clients
in the world.
2.- Intermediate Luxury. Marketing is more elaborate, and communication is selective and
does not resort to large media because the series is limited, the price is hi gh, and distribution is
selective. This would be the case of PAP watches, with 400 points of sale throughout the world
and with prices ranging from 600 to 60,000 €.
3.- Accessible Luxury. Here there is already the use of scientific or traditional marketing .
The brand goes to the consumer's search through communication in the mainstream media. This
is the case of perfumes, cosmetics or glasses of luxury brands, where there is already a wide
distribution, possibly by franchises.
David Report, as a trend consu ltant, encompasses intermediate luxury and accessible
luxury within the definition of Enlarged Luxury, which encompasses those products or services
that hold leading brands in the world of luxury but that many people, at least in theory, they can
get. They can be luxury brands that generate sub -brands or by -products, or massive brands that
launch premium lines supported or not supported by a firm that gives credibility. This is the case,
the latter, of the H&M collections with firms such as Karl Lagerfeld o r Madonna. We will see in
other sections that this trend will also be called masstige.
From this reflection on the categories, seen from the luxury environment, we can verify
that the haute couture brands generate new products within the enlarged luxury or accessible
luxury. These products gain value thanks to the connotations of the original brand of the catwalk.
Its value is merely emotional and allows economically less favoured classes to access otherwise
inaccessible brands.
The curious thing about this type of consumption is the need for these social classes to
consume brands, even with accessible luxury products, belonging to another social identity. It is
an aspirational product for the classes with reduced economic power, but it is also a way of tryi ng
to change their identity concerning others.

3.3.1. Typologies of fashion designers today

The fashion designer is the one who generates new concepts and, as part of the creative
process, is responsible for presenting them in the form of possible design s for fashion garments.
For researchers, there are four main types of designers who, in turn, work for different segments
of the final markets. But we must not forget that many of them are inspired by the same sources

and that designers from different sect ors of the fashion business influence each other; They are
inseparably linked by the design process and are inspired by everything with which they are in
contact. The Rieple and Gander categories are Mavericks, Leaders, Interpreters, and Players.18
1.- The nonconformists (called in the original Mavericks study). Creative designers
considered by the author in their purest form are called nonconformists. They are not targeting
good sales results, they do not make commercial designs, and they can take on th e role of the
Creative Design Director or Trend Prediction Consultant. His job is to guide the most important
fashion houses on choices such as the colour, style and fabrics of the seasons. They do not work
with current consumer or market trends. They are creators who generate new looks or establish
guidelines for a specific brand. Its objective is to open new routes and not extend the already
commercial ones. Some examples of this type of designers are Jhon Galiano, Vivienne Westwood
and Alexander McQueen
2.- The leaders. They are high -end designers, whose names are identified when working
for other fashion brands or throughout their careers. The most prominent example would be Donna
Karan. Leaders innovate in a ground -breaking way, with a high sense of bra nd, and generally end
up creating their own. An example of a designer who has started working for other houses and
who has created his brand is Tom Ford, with his beginnings in Gucci and his current own brand.
3.- The interpreters. They are a type of designer with a recent role in the fashion world.
They are a mix of designer, buyer and product development professional. They are people with a
great commercial sense of smell who know how to identify the key styles for each season. His goal
is to get a b rand or a retail company to get his design message across to consumers. Some examples
of companies that employ interpreters are Karen Millen, Anthropologie and Banana Republic.
4.- The reproducers. They are early fashion designers or those who manage to cr eate styles
for a brand or retailer, teaming up with buyers and product development managers. They select
the colour palettes and trends that suit the business and the brand. They are merchants who have
to ensure that the option taken is the correct one fr om fashion and, at the same time, it is wearable
and profitable. They are the experts at detecting what trends on the catwalk will hit the street in
retail. The chains of the large fashion distribution department are those that use reproductive
designers. These are chains such as H&M, Zara, Gap and Forever 21.

18 Virginia Grose. 2012. Basics Fashion Management 01: Fashion Merchandising: Switzerland, AVA Publishing, p.
16

Where to keep growing? With the brand consolidated and sales of the sewing collection
consolidated, what is the way forward? We will see, in the branding chapter, how the brand as a
symbol infers me aning to the buyer. So why not extend the brand to other product categories,
which the designer cannot produce but whose final result blesses somehow. shape?
Despite all that we have been talking about the value of the brand in the sale of its
collections, the influence of sewing houses and dressmakers has varied over time. Currently, only
an exclusive clientele has the time and purchasing power required to create haute couture. Instead,
fashion houses that are true icons of sewing, such as Chanel, Givenchy , Dior, Versace, Ralph
Lauren and Armani, need a very large part of their income to come from licenses for cosmetic
products, perfumes or accessories. New products, not manufactured by the brand, but blessed by
it. In our days, it is no longer manufactured , it is signed. Or, in other words, production is
subcontracted.
The brands whose consumers consider desirable have made the business of purchasing
licenses grow enormously since the 1980s. Specialized companies then started the business of
producing acces sories and other types of product under the name of prestigious brands. Thus, the
benefits that many of these brands receive come to a large extent from their licenses, so that, on
some occasions, they even exceed those of the sale of products in the mothe rhouse itself.
This is the case of Oscar de la Renta, who gets 83 million euros a year with the wholesale
of his collections and 541 million thanks to the licensing agreements of his brand. Or the case of
Gucci, who after buying the Yves Saint Laurent bran d, found that of YSL's 72.5 million euros in
profits, 55.8 came from license sales (it had 167 brand licenses). And finally, as an extreme case,
we find Pierre Cardin, who has reached 1,000 licenses.

We have already seen how Poiret was first to generate pr oducts beyond textiles. But Chanel
and Dior were the first to become aware of the brand's powers. The first saw that by mentioning
his name he could sell any product, such as his No. 5 perfume, which is still one of his enormous
successes today.
Chanel's N o. 5 Perfume is an unmatched success story, launched in 1921 and today remains
one of the best sellers worldwide. It is strong and dissonant and was the first perfume to mix natural
aromas with synthetic components that exalt floral notes and provide harsh er olfactory sensations.
Besides, to give value to the product and differentiate it from a large amount of competition that
was beginning to emerge, Chanel decided to enclose the perfume in a very simple bottle with the
Vendôme square -shaped stopper.
As we have just pointed out, the brand that has launched the most licenses from the world
of haute couture is Pierre Cardin. Few consumers of this designer's licensed products will
remember his avant -garde collections from the 1960s. However, the brand has endu red as a
guarantor of quality and style.
This strange man modest (Pierre Cardin) is credited with a phrase that sums up his destiny:
My name is more important than me. Indeed, the initials PC have adorned the most unexpected
objects: furniture, watches, j ewellery, chocolates, bidets, etc. Pierre Cardin will go down in history
as the man who has pushed the rational exploitation of a brand to unsuspected limits. Our
contemporaries may laugh at this octogenarian man, but the products signed with his name
continue to thrive in the most remote and unthinkable places on the globe, from Central Asia to
India.
At what point can a brand launch a license assignment? When a brand is well established
in the market and has a clientele that generates enough business, it may be the right time to transfer
its benefits – in terms of image. and reputation – to other products. This leap is usually made
towards sectors that, naturally, are related to fashion. But it is also possible to transfer the positive
values of the bran d and its good reputation to other market areas that initially could be seen as
alien to it. When the creators Viktor and Rolf tried to launch their perfume, before giving their
name to L’Oréal they had everything prepared – bottle, communication, etc. – but they lacked the
perfume itself. This situation shows, for the author, the importance that in the world of fashion
and, especially in the universe of perfume and cosmetics, the form has regarding its content.
Procter and Gamble Prestige is licensed by Ro chas, Gucci, Escada and Valentino perfumes,
while developing cleaning brands such as Ariel and Fairy, food, or pharmacy, like Vicks. In cases
like this, luxury brands benefit from P & G's experience in the market for consumer products. On
the one hand, it can use its distribution channels to achieve an adequate location of the product at
the points of sale and, on the other, the individual results of each brand are reinforced by the group's

results. The two segments, the selective and the massive end up uni ting under the experience of
the same company. Without a doubt, perfumery is one of the most important sectors for luxury
brands. Thus, for example, LVMH's sales of fragrances and cosmetics represented 16% of the
group's turnover in 2007 and 2008. The intr oduction of perfume on the market as a growth strategy
is not a new phenomenon: Paul Poiret can Claiming to be the first fashion designer to launch a line
of cosmetics and perfumery in 1911, the Worth brand introduced a perfume with its brand in 1925,
and Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel launched the world -famous Chanel No. 5 in 1921. It is anticipated
that the global market for perfumes and fragrances reach a sales volume of 33,000 million dollars
in 2012 (Global Industry Analysts, Inc.), with a European share of t he global market during the
year estimated at 46%.
Fashion brands are born in a changing sector, launching clothing collections at the mercy
of trends and current tastes. However, they must know how to build themselves as brands with
lasting values, which will allow them to invest in product categories that are not related to these
trends. These product categories that do not require a six -monthly need for innovation, such as an
haute couture collection, pay off the initial investment. Looking at the billin g data of fashion
brands and the percentage of billing that comes out of the licenses, we could almost say that the
haute couture collections are more of a brand communication campaign than a sales product. The
product that is the origin of the brand ends up becoming an event for it.
On the other hand, licenses will allow access to the brand world to social classes that
otherwise could not. Individuals who, without belonging to the luxury consumer environment (due
to their low economic power) decide to access the premium products of cheaper categories signed
by their luxury brands, are somehow redrawing their identity.
We have seen in the history section of clothing, how it communicates characteristics of the
individual to the environment. However, there is also the consumption of products, such as
perfumes, in which the brand is not visible to the other person. It is in this case that the brand plays
a reassuring role and acts only in an intimate relationship with the consumer.

3.3.2. Beauty slaves: the money that women spend to be beautifu l

Do beauty products facilitate our lives making us feel more comfortable or is it an industry
that has grown generating unnecessary habits?
In 1926 , the American newspaper New York Times announces in a report "Beauty is big
business." The text talks about the growing interest that beauty products arouse among the
population. He even cites the surprising example of beauty treatment addicts. Trades of these
products proliferate practically every state in the country.

The sale of lipsticks has matched that of toothbrushes, she announces and is beginning to
rival butter consumption. Some states begin to legislate and require clerks in beauty supply stores
720-hour courses in order to acquire a license. In New Jersey, it has been proposed that the culture
of beauty be part of Education in public schools.
The burgeoning cosmetic surgery industry, stemming from World War I, has attracted
numerous clients who are not deformed or disfigured or have frightening war wounds, just not
satisfied with how they look. They want to buy beauty.
The report put the annual spending on men's beauty products at a total of $ 750,000,000.
Women could choose from 7,000 different products on the market that increased every day. In
1925, the 30 million American women over the age of 21 were spending $ 5,000 a day on
cosmetics. "There are creams even to soften the elbows!", The editor was surprised.
Today, the US beauty industry is still a giant. Americans in 2012 spent 117,849 million
euros a yea r (375 on average per inhabitant) on these products. In comparison, our country is one
of those with the least expenditure, 3,858 million euros (85 euros per inhabitant).
In Europe for instance , France spends 112, Great Britain 91, Germany 85 and Italy, 7 4,
according to the study by the Strategic Research Center from EAE Business School «The Expense
on Personal Care in Spain and the rest of the world».
As of today, it has been studied that 17% do not appear for a job interview if they do not
see themselves well if they do not have confidence in their physique.
The old New York Times article was not misguided when he called it "The Million Dollar
Industry." The positioning of the sector in Spain , for instance , can be explained by television
advertising data.
According to Barlovento Comunicación's September 2014 audience study, in the Top 20
advertisers, the brands L´Oreal and Garnier are the third and fourth with the highest exposure, and
the seventh is Nivea. Ads related to beauty and hygiene are only behind those of food. There are
more cosmetic or perfume spots than culture, insurance, telecommunications, cleaning products
and even vehicles.
But at this point, the question is obvious. Do beauty products make our lives easier by
making us feel more comfortab le or is it an industry that has grown generating unnecessary habits?
Furthermore, have not women, the favourite target of these brands, developed an excessive
dependence that borders on slavery? A recent television advertisement, with the Spanish team
goalkeeper Iker Casillas as the protagonist, evidenced this. The goalkeeper appeared in the
bathroom mocking the number of beauty products that women have. "You have to see the number
of things they use to take care of themselves, instead we have it easier."

To see if the advertising is wrong, we went to a beauty franchise called No More Hair , to
ask how much a woman usually spends on these products. Carolina, an aesthetician, explains:
"Makeup costs a bar, I buy it only twice a year, but it seems very expensi ve to me. I always try to
take advantage of the offers. Also, many ladies who come here tell me many tricks about how to
save on beauty, for example, a woman gets highlights and dyes one month, but the next she only
gets highlights. Although I also know la dies who do a lot of makeup and have to buy products
every month and a half. The month I go to the hairdresser to straighten and cut my hair is when I
spend the most, maybe 50 euros. Then I buy facial cream, body cream, shampoo, mask … well yes,
the trut h is that I do spend a lot. Plus, the soaps and the Tampax, which are not cheap either."
Ana, the manager, says that her business model within the beauty sector is based precisely
on savings, photo epilation: "The treatments we do here are an investment be cause the first year
you spend about 300 euros and then you just have to come once a year and you spend between 100
and 150, but it is permanent hair removal, which serves to avoid the expense of waxing every
month ".
Regarding her expenses, she reveals: " Beauty costs me an average of about 150 euros a
month, a figure that I think is the minimum that a woman who goes to work every day spends. In
what I do not save is in bronzers and sun protection creams, there I do not make compromises, I
pay what is neces sary".
For the psychologist Cristina Wood, an expert in anxiety and stress, there is "very clearly"
more pressure on women than on men. "Girls are always valued for their beauty when they are
little, or when they are teenagers, but that is not done with bo ys, there are no compliments for their
beauty or the way they dress. Then among boys, they do not say to each other: how handsome you
are, man, how good your jeans feel. Among women, yes, and this is a ball that grows throughout
life until it becomes a rea l pressure on a woman."
"Today, it has been studied that 17% do not appear for a job interview if they do not look
good to themselves if they do not have confidence in their physique. It is known that one in three
teenage students if they do not feel beaut iful that day, do not participate in a debate in their class
so as not to draw attention to them. It has been proven with studies that when a woman reads one
of those fashion magazines if they pass a depression scale, she feels more depressed after reading
it than before because she tends to compare herself to the prettiest, the one with the most hair.
pretty, the one with the best operated breast… Many women value their self -esteem, their worth,
exclusively for their physique and that is not good".
Some wo men are spending a lot of money on beauty products and add to this the clothes
and the gyms, then they don't have left to save, go out with friends or help the family.

New technologies have only aggravated the problem. Wood continues: "There are ten -year-
old girls who post videos or photos of themselves on YouTube and ask if they are beautiful, they
receive hundreds of responses, some good, but many are cruel ridicule in the most vulnerable
moment of their lives." As for spending on beauty products, he says , "there are women who are
spending a lot of money on beauty products and add to this the clothes and the gyms, then they
have no money left to save, go out with friends or help the family, expenses that are going to make
you feel much better and have grea ter self -esteem than putting on makeup and combing your hair
to be beautiful ".
Carme Freixa , a psychologist, sexologist and writer, also considers that the beauty industry
is mainly aimed at women, although it has now begun to do so also with men, "but with very low
intensity." Freixa understands that advertising campaigns scratch sexism: "If th ere are women who
limit themselves because if they do not feel beautiful according to the canons of society they are
not sure of themselves, or that they stop taking care of themselves or being fit, which is logical
and healthy, to follow some guidelines e xhaustively, that is sexism".
Despite everything, Freixa warns that there comes a time when the pressure of marketing
ceases to affect . Magazines are always aimed at women aged 45 and under, those over 50 do not
dare because women when they reach that age, they are very clear that as much as the system is
patriarchal, as much as beauty standards are required of you or if success will not be denied, they
know that what is worthy of them is the security with which they walk through life. , which is not
in the social applause.
A solution would be to go further in education, he explains, "it was thought that going to
class together was all solved, but in education, students have to talk about the roles they have given
us, about that 'successful role' that They h ave sold us with which everything will go well if we
adopt it and if not, nothing. Although things have changed concerning other times, the marketing
of the industry is very powerful and it is based on old very entrenched roles in society that, at least,
must be contained, it cannot be that beauty ends up being the only vehicle that you have to feel
good and that others pay attention to you ".
In any case, society has already reacted against it. At the last Brussels Short Film Festival,
a work by Frenchman Frederic Doazan has spread on social media. This is "Supervenus", a short
film that shows how women are prepared to be beautiful. First, she ends her hair, her hair, then
she puts on her makeup, tans it, injects it with Botox, and so on until it burns.

3.3.3. Makeup: photoshop on social media and photographs

The photographic image coexists with today's society directly, thanks to new technological
advances and social networks. Large amounts of information are generated daily, with the content
of interest or not, and such information is always accompanied by a photograph. This information
is increasingly present on the network. Sharing our history, our identity or our photographs online
with other users has become a fun and daily practice for socie ty.
"This practice, which is based on the production and publication of images to stimulate
sociability in online social networks, has been driven by a series of technological and socio -cultural
changes that have occurred in parallel to the development of the Internet".19
The advancement and massification of ICTs, along with the effects of digitization on
photography, have created photo manipulation on social media, "the latest attempt to control,
frame, and package our lives (our idealized lives) for their presentation to others and ourselves "20.
Sontag, in his book On Photography (1977)21 maintains that it is a social rite, a defence
against anxiety and a tool of power. Digital technology, aesthetic consumerism, influencers,
Photoshop, are some of the causes of the
Photo manipulation is so present today in social networks. Millions of people have access
to a camera and the internet. Its low cost, ease of dissemination, and “the fact that millions of
people access this inexpensive digital equipment made it pos sible for billions of photos to be
produced and shared around the world”22.
It is very difficult to find today a photograph that has not been edited or retouched before
publication, but in some cases it is taken to extreme levels, even to manipulate the sen se of the
image itself, creating a reality invented by the user, even breaking moral limits.
The analysis of profiles and photographs of Instagram will help to deepen and collect
information on the repercussion that these entail on the network. Excessive m anipulation on the
web also affects personal brand, the online reputation of individuals, who are increasingly carried
away by aesthetic consumerism. In this way, we are shown that social networks influence and
impact in today's society in broad strokes, generating in the user a total dependency. More and
more users need the approval of others to feel good about themselves, they need followers on their

19 Basile, Diego, Linne, Joaquín. 2015.Adolescentes y redes sociales online: El photo sharing como motor de la
sociabilidad , Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y Comunicación, p. 27.
20 Popova , María.2015. Susan Sontag, fotografía y Redes Sociales: el consumismo estético y la Violencia de la
fotografía -available at http://numerof.org/susan -sontag -fotografia -y-redes -sociales-consumismo -estetico -y-
violenciade -la-fotografia/, accessed on 29 April 2020], para. 7.
21 Idem.
22 Basile, Diego, Linne, Joaquín. 2015. Adolescentes y Redes sociales online: El photo sharing como motor de la
sociabilidad, Cuadernos del Centro de Estud ios de Diseño y Comunicación, p. 25.

accounts, likes and comments for self -approval. This essay will investigate why the use of
photographic ma nipulation in networks and how it influences the user.
The abuse of social networks is increasingly real. Users upload photos without thinking
about their online reputation, retouch and manipulate the photos to be accepted and followed by
other users, taki ng away truthfulness at the time of photography, coming to create an invented
reality.
Society today forces us to capture every moment we live so that it remains in prosperity in
our profiles of social network accounts, therefore, the topic was also covere d in the second chapter
of this work, where the uses of the social aspects of photography have been completely
transformed.
The anxiety of photographing our surroundings led me to suggest that the image had
become a new primary means of communication, not secondary to another medium. People begin
to express what they feel through their photographs on social networks, without the need for many
words, that is, the images speak for themselves.
The concept of photographic manipulation is very present today since it is almost
impossible not to find an image that has not been retouched or manipulated, especially if they are
going to be exposed to the public. Manipulation means any retouching or alteration of the original
photograph taken by the camera. Not only the adjustments with programs are understood as
manipulation, but the fact of composing a frame, transforming one at the moment the photo is
captured can affect the meaning of the photograph, even the use that may be given by another user.
The manipulation in photography dates back years. The role of the photographer has been
lost in a society where technology, screens and social networks are the new witnesses to human
dilemmas. The rise of the digital world was not a change in why photogra phs were manipulated,
the only thing that leaped was how to do it. Photographic manipulation is as old a fact as
photography itself. Photographers and artists began trying new techniques and retouching
frequently to break monotony and reality.
In the past, retouching a photograph involved marking the areas where changes were to be
made and revealing the image as often as necessary until the desired result was obtained since the
process could take hours or days. Just like now, they removed wrinkles,
They thi nned the models, attached or subtracted people, element. They made artistic
montages to amaze, impress, hide or entertain, even for the love of art. Black and white were
present in the photographs they were the only colours that could be worked with and th is aroused
some concern in people, so the photographers decided to start working to find a remedy. They
began to apply oils on the images to achieve greater veracity.

When photography was introduced in 1839, its admirers wondered how a medium that
could pr esent shapes and textures in such exquisite detail could fail to register the ever -present
element of colour. Eager to please potential clients, photographers turned to manual intervention,
bringing their photos to life with powder pigment, watercolour, an d oil paint .
The oldest and least expensive method consisted of cutting several photographs with a
knife to obtain various elements and parts of them and then placing them all into a new
composition. A new photograph was revealed from this new collage, gen erating a new original
image.
Other techniques consisted of multiple exposures of a single negative or generating a new
original photograph through several overlapping negatives. The end was the same, to mix two or
more images in one. The most meticulous a rtists worked through the brush or the airbrush to put
the ink directly on the negative, correcting anything they did not want from the image.
The photographic darkroom was also one of the elements that generated interesting effects,
exposing more or less light in some part of the photography and using chemical elements in other
areas. In this way, they highlighted some areas or shadows, or improved luminosity and brightness.
Photographers who dared to carry out this type of work considered themselves true artists. One of
the first to carry out this type of manipulation was the photographer Oscar Rejlander, who lived
his entire life in Victorian England, although he was of Swedish origin. In 1850, he learned the
collodion technique, which tried to produce a negative image on a transparent support, usually in
the glass. It was through this combination of dozens of negatives that he managed to create his
most famous montage, entitled "The two ways of life" in 1857.
Between 1885 and 1915, Pictorialism captured t he imagination of the public. The followers
of this photographic movement believed that good photography was only the one that had been
retouched, so at that time each photograph was manipulated to achieve the desired effect. A good
example of this movemen t is the 1907 photograph by George Seeley, “The black bowl” (left).
Another of the great pictorial works was the 1949 “Electric household items” (right) by the author
Grete Stern, German designer and photographer.
In the 1930s, Man Ray, a famous American artist, created his most famous and copied
manipulated photography. Women were always one of his favourite subjects, hence his work “The
violin of Ingres ”, parodying the portraits of the ladies by the painter Jean -Auguste Ingres. He
represented the cabaret singer Kiki de Montparnasse bare -chested, featuring a musical instrument
on his back.
Many photographers have manipulated his works over the years, but without a doubt, the
photographic adjustments in photojournali sm are one of the most important examples in history.
Not only was the image manipulated, but with it, the information that this photograph transmitted

was manipulated. We are talking about the photomontages that made the Vanguards famous, the
retouching c arried out in Hitler's Germany, Franco's Spain, or the extremes to which the image
was taken in the Soviet Union. The images were taken and retouched according to the political
intentions of each party. Photography became a very powerful weapon of persuasi on, expression
and an extremely important means of communication and ideology. They were able to create false
moments and events that could last decades if the touches were not discovered.
In "photostalinism" it is shown how Stalin was not content to execu te his political enemies
but erased his trail from the photographs to glorify his figure and overshadow that of others. The
State Museum of GULAG History in Moscow held in 2012 the exhibition “The Commissar
Disappears”, in which 150 manipulated images from Stalin's time are gathered, where they make
sure that his enemies died twice.
The most famous photographically manipulated work in history is the famous speech of
May 1920, delivered by Lenin, addressing the people on a wooden dais, and next to him, Trots ky
and Kamenev. When they both fell, Stalin ordered them removed from the photograph without
leaving a trace.
Photographic manipulation in the era of analogue photography is the research principle for
this work. These mentioned exhibitions show that photography is never an objective capture of
reality and truth, only an illusion of what they want us to see, always questioning the fidelity of
the image. The photographic manipulation has been taking place chronologically, having its
culminating moment b etween 1930 and 1950, where the society began to become aware that the
retouching was usual and abusive. Photography ceased to be the document of absolute truth that
everyone used for the old saying of seeing to believe.
"That the photographs are often pra ised for their veracity, their honesty, indicates that most
of the photographs, of course, are not truthful)23”.
The new photo retouching techniques have their origins in 1920 when an underwater cable
between London and New York was able to pass digital ima ges. But the true apogee is from 1960,
where new devices and software appeared, such as Photoshop. The photo retouching program
began to see the light in 1987 at the hands of Thomas Knoll, a student to display grayscale images
on monochrome screens. Along with his brother John Knoll, who saw its potential, they developed
new versions until Apple and Adobe took an interest in their project and bought it in September
1988. Photoshop 1.0 was released in 1990 for the Macintosh.

23 Popova , María.2015. Susan Sontag, fotografía y Redes Sociales: el consumismo estético y la Violencia de la
fotografía -available at http://numerof.org/susan -sontag -fotografia -y-redes -sociales -consumismo -estetico -y-
violenciade -la-fotografia/, accessed on 29 April 2020], para. 90.

The first version for Windows wa s 2.5 launched in 1992. From there, each year they
improve their versions and each time, more photographic shortcuts and impossible retouching can
be performed.
In its early days, perhaps it had the function of solving minor lighting or colour problems,
among others, but its original role has evolved to unleash the abuse of manipulation in photography
that we find today. This activity has reached such a point that it is as important as photographing,
which is why there are professionals who are exclusively dedicated to manipulating photographs
for advertising, media or graphic design.
The use of Photoshop can generate different impacts depending on the area used; social,
commercial, professional, academic … But what is clear is that its excessive use deval ues the
original photographed images. There are numerous photo retouching programs, but Photoshop
leads the creative industry. The possibilities offered by its tools are endless, it offers incalculable
possibilities, and also simply and quickly. You just have to download the program and get to work.
On the other hand, despite all the integrated functions of the program, it does not replace
the work of a professional photographer, since, without a good original photograph, little can be
done with retouchin g. Contrast, brightness, among others, were obtained before in the image
development process depending on the paper used. Besides, different filters were needed to be able
to print them, or the use of the capping process, where in the middle of developing a part of the
image was exposed to shade. Today, any of these actions take half the time that was previously
assumed. It is enough to press a button and level the black and white, the brightness or the contrast
from a bar to the left or right, thus modifyi ng the levels.
Manuel Morrison, in his blog of Tutorials, resources and techniques of web and graphic
design (2012), explains that Photoshop today is such a powerful and comprehensive tool that it
has become an essential tool for graphic designers, web des igners, illustrators and cartoonists,
photographers, video editors, 3D creators … since any digital work passes through Photoshop in
some of its phases sooner or later. There are many reasons to use Photoshop, but the most important
thing is that if you use it properly, it can make your job easier and create real wonders.
Social networks have become a fundamental communication tool in society. Young people
born after 1980 are known by Prensky (2001) as digital natives, as they grow up immersed in a
digita l environment where ICTs are about to make their revolution. It is from the nineties when
video games, cameras, computers and CDs began to form part of the daily life of adolescents.
From this massification of new technologies, photography also becomes a d aily activity for
millions of people. Since the invention of photography in the 19th century, its uses have been
transformed over time, but have always been linked to personal experiences and the reminder of
significant events. Before the 20th century, pho tography had the role of remembering and

remembering the past, culture, history; an artefact used to conjure memory, nostalgia and
contemplation24: "Photographic activity is a social practice that, during the 20th century, has
helped to create and modulate individual and collective memory" (Bourdieu, 1989)25.
At the end of World War II, the company Kodak was in charge of transforming the social
uses of photography, as it launched a camera that could be accessed by everyone, not just image
professionals. Inste ad, the main recipients were amateurs to give it a private and family use. As a
result, the uses of the image were modified, and new styles emerged that caused a revolution and
evolution of what was known as photography until the end of the 20th century.

24 Basile, Diego, Linne, Joaquín. 2015. Adolescentes y Redes Sociales online: El photo sharing como motor de la
sociabilidad, Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y Comunicación, p. 27.
25 Idem, p. 19.

Conclusions

Today's society is more exposed than ever to the messages and social meanings created and
reinforced by the mass media. The hypermodern consumer society needs to generate constant
desires that fuel a continuous demand for new products that are no longer just produced to satisfy
primary needs. And, in this context, the so -called beauty industry, supported by the reign of the
image and the ephemeral, occupies a preponderant place. Girls and adolescents are the last souls
seduced by this complex consumer machinery that not only determines behaviours but ways of
being and being in the world. A network associated with complex social meanings that have a
decisive influence on the creation of personal and gender identiti es. Identities that are currently
being transformed by the early assignment of qualities and traits of the normative feminine gender
accompanied, in turn, by equally normative heterosexuality.
Girls and adolescents are exposed to models of representation t hat exclude certain roles
and genres that also reject certain sexualities. There are models of femininity and masculinity, and
also of sexual behaviour, excluded from the normative, normal and natural category. However, as
we have highlighted, this sexual component is omnipresent in popular mass culture: the 'eroticized'
representation continues to be decisively present both in the image that is created of women and,
increasingly, of girls and teenagers through a heavy makeup.
Identifying the consequences o f this whole process and the effects that this influence has
on the personal identity of the girls can only be done by exhaustively analysing the contents and
discourses of advertising and media, the gender stereotypes that it constructs and reinforces, th e
roles that it assigns girls and women, the social values that it supports and extols, the systems of
meanings that it constructs, the connotations and the power relations underlying the use of
language, the discursive and performative choices . This ope n, flexible and dynamic reading will
be essential to address the effects of this early assignment of attributes and values to girls and
adolescents and its effects on their gender identity. And it is that, as Clifford Geertz maintains in
Mattelart26 “The analysis of symbolic systems [created in society] is not an experimental science
in search of laws but an interpretive science in search of meanings ”.

26 Armand Y M. Mattelart.1997. Historia de las teo rías de la comunicación / History of communication theories,
Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, p. 101.

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