Creativity, Culture and Education Series [606021]

Creativity, Culture and Education Series
Teachers –
formation,training andidentity: a literature review
Ian Menter

December 2010
Creativity, Culture and Education
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© CCE December 2010Creativity, Culture and Education (CCE) Literature Reviews
These reports have been commissioned to introduce readers to the mainprinciples, theories, research and debates in the field. They aim to introducethe major themes and writing pertaining to each area of study and to outlinekey trends and arguments.
About the author
Ian Menter is Professor of Teacher Education at the University of Glasgow.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to many colleagues for fruitful collaborations that have enabled me to
undertake this review, in particular the members of the Teacher EducationGroup: Anne Campbell, Marion Jones, Ian Hextall, Moira Hulme, Pat Mahony,Jean Murray and Karl Wall.
The review has also benefited from my discussions with doctoral students,
especially Victoria Thomas.
Thanks to Julian Sefton-Green of CCE for his encouragement and support.

Contents
03About the Creativity, Culture and Education Literature Review Series 04
Foreword 07
1 Introduction 09
2 Becoming a teacher: competing approaches 13
2.1 The history of teacher education in the UK 13
2.2 1984 and the politicisation of teacher education 15
2.3 Competing paradigms 20
2.4 Teaching in the 21st century 25
3 Teachers’ professional identities 29
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Professional identity 30
3.3 Secondary school studies 31
3.4 Teachers in primary schools 33
3.5 The contribution of policy sociology 35
3.6 Class, gender and ‘race’ 37
3.7 Life history 40
3.8 Teachers and other professions 40
3.9 Globalisation and teacher identity 41
3.10 Summary 42
4 Creative dimensions in teacher development and identity 45
4.1 Definitions of creativity 45
4.2 Creativity in teaching 46
4.3 Creativity in the curriculum 48
4.4 Implications for teachers 49
5 Teachers working with others 55
5.1 Teachers – not always a full-time permanent classroom post 55
5.2 Teachers and inter-professional working 58
5.3 The rise of the private sector 59
5.4 Conclusion 60
6 Creative partnerships working in the classroom 63
6.1 Teachers working with artists 63
6.2 Recent research 66
7 Conclusion 69
References 73

About the Creativity, Culture and
Education Literature Review Series
Creativity, Culture and Education (CCE) is a national charity with a vision for all
children, regardless of their background, to experience and access the diverserange of cultural activities in England because these opportunities can enhancetheir aspirations, achievements and skills. We promote the value and impact ofcreative learning and cultural opportunities through our strong evidence baseand policy analysis, stimulating debate among policy makers and opinionformers, and delivering front line high quality programmes.
Through our research and evaluation programme, we promote a systemic
approach to creative and cultural initiatives and one which builds on theexcellent practice which already exists to make opportunity consistent, toensure that all children and young people are included and to place quality atthe core of any creative or cultural experience.
CCE’s work includes: •Creative Partnerships – England’s flagship creative learning programme
fosters long-term partnerships between schools and creative professionalsto inspire, open minds and harness the potential of creative learning. Theprogramme has worked with over 1 million children and over 90,000teachers in more than 8,000 projects in England. http://www.creative-partnerships.com/
•Find Your Talent – how we can help children and young people to access
arts and culture: www.findyourtalent.org
Fostering creativity is fundamentally important because creativity brings with it
the ability to question, make connections, innovate, problem solve,communicate, collaborate and to reflect critically. These are all skills demandedby contemporary employers and will be vital for young people to play their partin a rapidly changing world.
Our programmes can have maximum impact if teachers, parents, children,
young people and practitioners themselves learn from the experience andactivities delivered through the programmes. For this reason, one of the mostsignificant legacies will be the product of our research and evaluation and howthat is effectively communicated to stakeholders.
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However, because Creativity, Culture and Education works by creating
partnerships drawn from the widest fields of endeavour, the differentstakeholders recognise that there is often a ‘knowledge gap’ betweenreflection, analysis, and learning. In addition, the wide focus of approach –which is fundamental to the nature of creativity – means that people are oftenworking at the limit of their disciplines.
For these reasons we have commissioned a series of literature reviews
exploring the key issues in current literature and summarising the history andlatest developments in each subject. Each review is written by an experiencedand respected author in their field. They aim to be accessible, clearly referencedand to act as ‘stepping-stone’ resources to underpin the research conducted byand for Creativity, Culture and Education.
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06

Foreword
In this review, Ian Menter provides an overview of how teachers have been
trained since the late 19th century up to the present day, and considersconnections between creativity and teacher identity, between teachers’wellbeing and their pupils, and between the increasing number of non-teaching professionals working in the classroom and teacher identity.
Creativity, Culture and Education has long championed the importance of
supporting teachers in the classroom through partnership opportunities andformal CPD. This is because we believe that teachers themselves providethe best basis for sustainable changes in the quality of teaching and learning,and that the only way to achieve this is to offer prolonged engagement withreflective, supportive partnerships that help to develop pedagogy. TheCreative Partnerships programme offers the best and most establishedexample of CCE’s approach to this challenge, but we acknowledge thatthere are long standing histories and paradigms at work which influence themajor structures and institutions that offer teacher CPD and this review aimsto make this more explicit.
Menter’s review of the literature focusing on teachers demonstrates the
range of issues that require the attention of policymakers and practitionersworking with and for teachers. Five strands explored in this literature review,teacher collaboration and enquiry, pupil voice, community engagement,exploiting new technologies and creative partnerships, are suggested byMenter as important to the “re-emergence of a confident professionalismamong teachers… based upon a recognition of their distinctive contributionto society through the education of children.”
Running through the whole of this review is a consideration of the sense of
identity and autonomy at the heart of the teaching profession and the extentto which teachers are enabled or impeded in their efforts to act withconfidence when providing educational opportunities to children. It suggestsa reinvention of the role may be timely, to create a flexible, confident senseof autonomous practice, open to collaboration and partnership, yet fuelled bya clear understanding of the unique and valuable contribution to society thatteachers make.
Dr David Parker, Creativity, Culture and Education
Dr Julian Sefton-Green
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There has been growing interest
in aspects of identity in socialsettings over recent years, andthis has been reflected in anincreasing amount of researchwork concerning teachers’identities.
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091Introduction
This review of research on teachers and their work has a central focus on
the question of identity. There has been growing interest in aspects ofidentity in social settings over recent years, and this has been reflected in anincreasing amount of research work concerning teachers’ identities. Theteaching profession has been subject to much policy change in this periodand hence the ways in which the professional aspects of teacher identity areformed have also been changing.
The main purpose of this review is to provide arts and education
practitioners with an overview of relevant issues in understanding influenceson the development of creative working partnerships in school classrooms,through considering:
1. how teachers in the UK have been and are currently trained for their
work in schools;
2. how the professional identities of teachers are formed and developed;3. the extent to which professional development (ITE and CPD
1) prepares
teachers for creative aspects of teaching and learning and creative aspects of the curriculum;
4. how recent policy developments have led to increasing forms of
professional and inter-professional collaboration;
5. accounts (including published research) of teacher collaboration in school-
based arts and arts-related projects.
The review has five main sections. The section that follows (Section 2)
offers an overview of the ways in which teachers have been trained in theUK since the late 19th century. What emerges from this historical review isthat there have been competing models of teaching underlying differentphases of teacher education. In the recent past there has been very strongcentral control of the process and all new teachers are now required to meeta particular set of standards or competences that are laid down at a nationallevel. There has been a significant debate about the extent to which this hasconstrained teachers’ autonomy or indeed their scope for creativity.
1Initial Teacher Education and Continuing Professional Development

In Section 3 we consider teachers’ identities, exploring the interaction of
professional and personal factors and the ways in which research hastracked the changing experiences of teachers and how a number of therecent policy developments affecting teachers’ work appear to have‘reduced’ their professionalism and to have increased the ways in whichthey are judged by measures of performance. There has been a culture of‘performativity’ that has challenged their professional identity. Althoughmany teachers retain elements of a past professional identity based on apublic service ethic, the adaptation to new forces has had a major impact onthe profession as a whole.
Section 4 then considers connections between creativity and teacher
identity more directly, considering in turn creativity in teaching and thencreativity in the curriculum. A number of themes emerge from thisdiscussion, through which the more creative dimensions of teaching mightbe enhanced and developed.
In Section 5, we consider recent and current changes in the organisation of
teaching and teachers’ work, in particular some of the boundaries that affecthow teachers work, including their employment contracts and the ways inwhich they relate to others working in schools: there has been an enormousgrowth of ancillary staff in schools over the past ten to fifteen years. Thisleads to Section 6, where some examples of teachers working alongsidecreative professionals in school settings are considered.
The conclusion to the review is a positive one that suggests that in the
contemporary setting for teachers, partnerships with creative professionalscan not only greatly enhance the experience of learners, but also greatlyenrich the teachers’ own working experience. Teachers’ work has becomeso collaborative and interactive that they are now very well placed to workeffectively with a wide range of partners, including creative professionals.
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11

12… since the establishment of a
state education system in the1870s … teacher education hasconsistently been a significantsite of social and politicalstruggle.

132Becoming a teacher:
competing approaches
2.1 The history of teacher education in the UK
We shall see that the past twenty-five years of teacher education have been
a time of much change and turbulence. However, a longer review of teachereducation across the UK, particularly since the establishment of a stateeducation system in the 1870s, shows that teacher education hasconsistently been a significant site of social and political struggle. The inter-related themes of this contestation include the following:
•Struggles for ‘positioning’ and the ‘ownership’ of teacher education
•Attempts to define teaching as a profession – and to establish whether
teaching has a distinctive intellectual knowledge base
•Debate over teachers’ terms and conditions, as well as pay, and the role
of teachers’ unions
•The emergence of professional bodies to uphold professional standards
and to control entry into the profession
•The economics of teacher supply and demand
Systematic teacher training developed in England in the second half of the
19th century alongside the provision of elementary schooling for all. Thepupil-teacher system was in essence the first form of ‘on the job’ training forteachers. Here youngsters who had completed elementary schooling wouldteach the younger pupils under the supervision of the schoolmaster. ‘Normalschools’ emerged, where practice classrooms were established enablingtrainee teachers to perform in front of others and their tutors.
The early colleges emerged out of these normal schools in many instances,
and most of them were run by the Church of England and its associatedbodies. By the end of the 1840s more than twenty colleges of educationhad been established in England (Dent, 1977).
As a system of secondary schools gradually emerged in the early twentieth
century, so graduates from universities were employed to teach the subjectthey had studied. At first it was assumed that no particular training wasrequired. However, by the time of the outbreak of the Second World War anational network of colleges had developed and some universities hadstarted their own departments of education. The war had a major impact,with a number of colleges closing and with potential trainees being

14conscripted. Shortened training courses (‘emergency training’) were
instigated after the war to address the shortfall in teacher supply. Chairs ofeducation had been established in a small number of universities, indicatingthat education had been recognised as a legitimate field of study. This, ofcourse, was much later than for some other professional areas, notablymedicine and law.
Teachers’ trade unions became increasingly active during the first half of the
twentieth century, and were not only concerned about pay and conditionsbut also sought to raise the standing and status of the profession across thecountry. Many elementary school teachers were from working-classbackgrounds
2and in this sector the workforce was increasingly becoming
dominated by women. Secondary school teachers, who at this time receiveda higher rate of pay, were less feminised and tended to be drawn more frommiddle-class backgrounds.
During the 1960s, teachers were again becoming a strong political voice in
UK society. The emerging ‘counter-culture’ had its educationalmanifestations in schools, colleges and universities. Early in the 1970s, thegovernment established a major committee of enquiry under Lord James toconsider the current provision for teacher education in England and Wales,both pre-service and in-service. This reported in 1972 in what becameknown as the James Report and confirmed the move towards an all-graduate profession (Department of Education and Science, 1972). Such anambition was already established in Scotland, where the General TeachingCouncil had been established in 1966 and was supporting this aspiration as acentral plank of its work.
By this time the majority of primary teachers were training through a
Certificate of Education, typically taking three years. These were beingconverted into Ordinary Degrees – the Bachelor of Education – with thepossibility of an Honours degree through undertaking a fourth year of study.The degrees were validated by a local university. A one year trainingprogramme for graduates was also introduced at this time, eventuallybecoming known as the PGCE – the Postgraduate Certificate of Education.
For secondary teachers, the normal training route now was a one year
programme, also called the PGCE. These were offered in some colleges as
2See DH Lawrence’s The Rainbow and Women in Love for fascinating fictional accounts.

15well as in university departments of education (UDEs). The role of
universities in teacher education was steadily increasing (see Alexander,Craft and Lynch, 1984).
The James Report also played a part in the subsequent ‘rationalisation’ of
provision. Many colleges were closed during the 1970s through mergers.Several of these combined with the new polytechnics, administered by localeducation authorities, to form departments or faculties of education, someof which were very large indeed. Some ‘monotechnic’ provision in colleges,especially those associated with the churches, remained at this time.
By the beginning of the 1980s, there was thus a situation where provision
had been consolidated into a number of colleges, polytechnics anduniversities, and an-all graduate profession was well on the way to beingestablished. The nature of the training had been established as acombination of professional and theoretical classes, together with periods of‘teaching practice’ in schools (Alexander, 1984). The degree programmestended to include significantly more theory than the one-year graduatetraining programmes, although even there, efforts were made to introducestudents to relevant research and theory.
2.2 1984 and the politicisation of teacher education
In 1976, Prime Minister Callaghan gave his famous ‘Ruskin speech’, whichin just a few minutes set out political concern about the apparent failure ofeducation (in England and Wales) to meet the economic needs of thecountry. This, in the immediate wake of the economic crisis caused by therapid rise in oil prices, gave rise to a considerable ‘moral panic’ abouteducation. The seeds were thus sown for significantly more directintervention in many aspects of education by government than hadhappened at least since the early twentieth century. For many years thecurriculum had been seen as a ‘Secret Garden’ for education professionals,with governments being much more interested in such matters as schoolstructures and teachers’ pay. Now, for the first time for nearly a hundredyears, government started to show serious interest in the school curriculum.But there were also growing concerns about the quality of teaching, not

least in the wake of such infamous causes célèbres as ‘the William Tyndale
affair’ in 1975. This was the case of a primary school in North London, whichwas undertaking a radical curriculum initiative in which many decisions werebeing made by the children. It attracted considerable press interest and ledto a formal inquiry
3(Dale, 1989).
A Conservative government under Mrs Thatcher came into power at
Westminster in 1979. Although he was not the first Minister for Educationunder the Tories, Sir Keith Joseph was certainly the first to createconsiderable turbulence within teacher education. He produced a WhitePaper in 1983 called
‘Teaching Quality’ (DES, 1983), which among other
things, gave rise to a 1984 government circular on initial teacher education,known as ‘3/84’ (DES, 1984). This for the first time established nationalcriteria for the approval of initial teacher education (ITE) courses.
In due course, ‘3/84’ proved to be just the first of a whole series of circulars
produced under Conservative administrations. By the time that New Labourtook office in 1997, the culture of initial teacher education had beencompletely transformed (Furlong
et al., 2000). Among the most significant
aspects of this were:
•The creation of the Teacher Training Agency (TTA) (since renamed as the
Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA))
•The requirement that all providers of initial teacher training work in
partnership with schools
•That ITT be significantly based in schools (up to 66% of time on
secondary one-year courses)
•That all courses be regularly inspected and graded by Ofsted (itself
created in 1992) and that providers be resourced with ITT places according to the grades awarded in the inspections
•That all courses and all trainees be judged by the extent to which they
delivered and achieved a range of ‘standards’ defining the observable behaviours required of beginning teachers
•That universities were not required to be part of the ITT process –
schools, consortia or other agencies could bid to provide employment-based training, for example.
163The inquiry was established by the Inner London Education Authority, following months of campaigns, highlighted in
the press, about the management and control of the school and its extreme ‘child-centredness’. The inquiry reportcatstigated the majority of the teaching staff and most of them were sacked, following strike action.

All of these changes amounted to a sea change in the nature of provision.
Writing in 1992, Gilroy described this as the ‘political rape of teachereducation’ (Gilroy, 1992). The power and influence of the university sectorwere under sustained attack during this period. Both the Vice-Chancellorsand the Faculties of Education seemed to be almost entirely powerless inresisting this onslaught which, it was claimed, had led to a ‘technicisation’(Stronach
et al., 2002) or ‘deprofessionalisation’ (Landman and Ozga, 1995)
of teaching.
The changes appear in retrospect to have resulted from a combination of
ideological and economic factors. There is no doubt that the thinkers of theNew Right, so influential during the Thatcher years, had succeeded insignificantly undermining the reputation of the historic providers of educationthrough a series of pamphlets, articles and other media appearances thatalleged left-wing infiltration of the ‘teacher training colleges’ and thepromotion of ‘barmy theory’ (a phrase famously used by Kenneth Clarkewhen he was Secretary of State for Education). The Adam Smith Institute,the Hillgate Group and the Centre for Policy Studies were among the think-tanks that successfully called the integrity and suitability of existing provisioninto question (see Gilroy, 1992).
But there were some other economic factors at work which were also to
have an impact on teacher education. There were growing and immediateconcerns about the supply of teachers. At various points during the 1980sand then especially during the 1990s, serious shortages in the supply ofteachers threatened to undermine the credibility of government. Some ofthe responses that come under the heading of ‘diversification of routes ofentry’ into teaching can be seen as an attempt to ensure that supply couldmeet demand. So, for example, we saw the introduction of shortened BEdcourses in ‘shortage subjects’ during the 1980s, followed later in thatdecade by schemes for ‘articled’ and ‘licensed’ teachers, opening up thepossibility for later employment-based routes (such as the Graduate TeacherProgramme) to be established.
Another significant development in the early 1990s was the removal of the
‘binary divide’ in higher education between polytechnics and universities,meaning that for the first time the majority of teacher education provisionwas the responsibility of universities, although some provision withincolleges of higher education continued.
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When New Labour came to power in 1997, the first Green Paper they produced
concerned teachers and teaching (DfEE, 1998). It actually had very little to sayabout the overall provision of Initial Teacher Education and Training (ITET),although it did lead to the introduction of ‘skills tests’ for qualifying teachers, butby and large it confirmed the arrangements already in place. The more significantelements of the proposals concerned the introduction of a performance-relatedpay scheme, in the shape of ‘threshold assessment’ and proposals tosignificantly increase the number of ancillary staff working in schools. Both ofthese developments have had significant impact on teachers. There had beenlongstanding opposition to the introduction of performance-related pay, with earlyattempts to introduce appraisal systems for teachers having been resisted duringthe 1980s. However, on the basis of the argument that good teaching should berewarded (‘something for something’ in the words of the then ChancellorGordon Brown), teachers who had reached the top of the standard scale couldsubmit an application to pass the threshold. The application involved thesubmission of evidence of achievement which was then judged by assessors.The great majority of applications were successful and teachers could then moveforward to the Upper Pay Scale where any further increases were subject toapplication and assessment (Wragg
et al., 2004).
The announcement of an increase in ancillary staff was met by a mixed
reception. Yes, teachers were keen to receive further support, but there wassome anxiety that this might be a covert way of introducing a new cadre of staffinto schools who would actually take on some of the responsibilities – including,critically, face-to-face contact with classes – that had been the distinctivepreserve of qualified teachers. Recently published work commissioned by theDepartment for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (Hutchings
et al., 2009)
has tended to confirm that this has actually been happening, even if it was notthe original intention. Furthermore, even where it has not been happening, someother recent research indicates that the provision of ancillary staff does notnecessarily lead to improvements in educational outcomes (Blatchford
et al.,
2009). These matters are discussed in more detail in Section 5 below.
Pay differentials directly related to performance have been resisted in
Scotland, although there, too, the number of classroom assistants hasincreased significantly and the government has made continuing commitmentsto lowering class sizes, especially in the early stages of primary school.However, what has also been evident in Scotland over recent years has been anumber of policies which emanate from the ‘McCrone Report’ of 2000
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(Scottish Executive, 2000). This report was commissioned by the then
Scottish Office to investigate pay and conditions for Scottish teachersfollowing a period of considerable industrial unrest during the 1990s. Therecommendations, which were largely accepted by the Scottish Executiveand published in an agreement entitled
A Teaching Profession for the 21st
Century (Scottish Executive, 2001), gave teachers a pay rise greater than
20%, phased over five years, and also stipulated a ‘normal’ working week ofno more than 35 hours. The agreement introduced the notion of anentitlement to CPD and also launched the idea of the ‘Chartered Teacher’ asa route for teachers who did not wish to be promoted into managementposts but wished to pursue excellence in classroom performance. While theScottish approach is quite distinctive, similar schemes have been introducedelsewhere in the UK, leading to a range of models of ‘the accomplishedteacher’.
More recently, we have seen the introduction of elements of Master’s level
work into initial teacher education programmes in England, so that forexample, teachers qualifying with a PGCE may now achieve a number ofcredits at M Level, which can then be recognised as part of a subsequentprogramme of study towards a Master’s award, such as an MEd. During2010, the TDA has been introducing a pilot scheme for the Master’s inTeaching and Learning (MTL), a new qualification which it intends in duecourse to make available to all newly qualified teachers. This appears to bethe first step towards the creation of a ‘Master’s Level profession’, as is thecase in Finland and some other states. Much of the drive for thesedevelopments came from a report from the McKinsey Corporation, writtenby a former British Government education adviser, Sir Michael Barber(McKinsey, 2007).
As well as increasing the number of ancillary staff, governments across the
UK have all been developing – each in their own way – attempts to improveinter-professional collaboration around education. So we have seen theconcept of ‘wraparound schooling’ in England or the launch of ‘learningcommunities’ in Scottish cities. Such schemes share an interest in bringingtogether professionals from education, health, social services andsometimes, police and voluntary agencies, all for the better integration ofservices, especially for those deemed to be most needy.
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The other significant development over recent years has been around
leadership in education. The launch of a National College for SchoolLeadership
4(NCSL) by Tony Blair in England signalled an increased concern
with the management of schools. Initially, the focus was very much oncurrent and aspirant headteachers, but increasingly leadership has beenseen as an expectation for all teachers. Hence the National College now hascourses such as ‘Leading from the Middle’.
2.3 Competing paradigms
Thus we have seen that the history of teacher education over the past 150years or so has been a story of institutional change and occasional conflict.In the next section we shall consider the implications of these changes forquestions of teacher identity, but before that, it will be helpful to try to drawout some of the competing models of – or approaches to defining –teachers’ work that have emerged during this history and which are all stillpresent in the way that contemporary discussions about teachers andteaching are played out. It may be suggested that there are four particularmodels that can be identified.
2.3.1 The effective teacher: standards and competences
This is the model that has emerged as the dominant one in governments’discourses over the last thirty years. It is closely associated with theeconomically led view of education that stresses the need for high qualityeducation provided by high quality teachers that will prepare pupils to taketheir part in making ours a successful economy on the world stage. Theemphases are on technical accomplishment and on measurement. It is themodel for an age of accountability and performativity (Mahony and Hextall,2000). It is a response to the variability in the quality of teaching and thediversity of approaches that increasingly characterised the post-war period.From a political perspective it is almost impossible to reject this model,because it prioritises value for money for taxpayers and opportunity for allpupils to achieve to their best potential and subsequently to contribute to the
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4The NCSL has now changed its name to The National College for Leadership of Schools and Children’s Services.

economy and society. It may be compared with approaches to teaching that
were present early in the twentieth century when, under the Revised Code(in 1904), elementary school teachers had a tightly prescribed curriculumbased on ‘object lessons’ and were monitored by headteachers andinspectors. In its contemporary version, however, with the use of moderntechnologies and a range of good quality curriculum materials, it may lead toa more enriching learning experience than it did a hundred years ago.
Nevertheless, such an approach to teaching is consistent with a nationally
prescribed curriculum and a national assessment system, which extendsdown to the earliest stages of schooling, long before the publicexaminations of the upper secondary school. Indeed, this particular aspect ofeducation in the UK has seen considerable recent variation in policy acrossthe four nations and has been the topic of considerable discussion followingthe publication of the
Cambridge Primary Review (Alexander, 2010). In
Scotland, although there was a clear set of guidance under Curriculum 5-14introduced from 1989 onwards, there has not been a national curriculum assuch, and currently a
Curriculum for Excellence is being introduced. In both
Wales and Northern Ireland there has been much relaxation of the NationalCurriculum since devolution, especially in the earlier years of schooling.Likewise, national assessment in the form of Standard Assessment Tasks(SATs) (and accompanying school league tables) was not developed in thesame way in Scotland and has been removed from the Welsh system sincedevolution.
So it is perhaps not surprising that the ways in which the dominant
standards-based approach to teaching has been defined in each countryhave shown some interesting variations. In a small-scale study undertakenas part of the
Teaching and Learning Research Programme , some significant
differences were identified between the statements defining what wasrequired of new teachers in each of the four jurisdictions (Menter andHulme, 2008). In particular, the most explicit statements about underlyingvalues of teaching were found in the Northern Irish, Welsh and Scottishdocuments, but these were far less visible in the English. Furthermore therewere much more explicit references to educational research and enquiry andto anti-discriminatory practice in the documents produced in the smallernations. While it must be acknowledged that such differences in officialpolicy statements do not necessarily reflect significant differences inpractice (or in teacher identity), nevertheless the differences do suggest a
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differentiation within the policy community in each country. In other words,
the effective teacher model is not a universally agreed prescription. Mahonyand Hextall (2000) provide an account of how the standards were developedand implemented in the English context under the auspices of the TTA. It isquite clear that teachers and teacher educators played a very small part inthese developments.
But if the effective teacher model is itself disputed, nor are the other three
models, that we shall set out, the subject of universal agreement. What theyhave in common, however, is that they are models that have emerged muchmore from within the teaching profession and from within sites of teachereducation, in contrast to the politically-driven effective teacher model.
2.3.2 The reflective teacher
The notion of teaching as a reflective activity emerged strongly in the UK asthe technicist and performative hold of the government was developing.Some versions were indeed direct responses to the policy proposals andsought to promote the possibility of ‘reflective competences’ (Hextall
et al.,
1991). The philosophical roots of the reflective teaching model may be foundin the work of the American educator John Dewey. Writing early in thetwentieth century he captured an approach to teaching which was based onteachers becoming active decision-makers in their professional work.
Similar ideas were developed later in the century by Donald Schon who,
working across a number of different professions, wrote about
The
Reflective Practitioner (1983), stressing the significance of values and of
theory informing the decisions that practitioners make. In the UK, such ideaswere picked up and developed in a very practical way by Andrew Pollard andhis collaborators who, from the mid-1980s onwards, produced a series ofbooks, including handbooks, on ‘reflective teaching’ (Pollard and Tann, 1987).At the centre of this model was a cyclical approach as set out in Figure 1.
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Figure 1
The reflective teaching model (adapted from Pollard and Tann, 1987)
Built into such a model is a commitment to personal professional
development through practice. It was a model that took a firm hold inteacher education institutions across the UK during the latter parts of thetwentieth century. The largest scale studies of initial teacher educationundertaken in England by Furlong
et al. (2000) found that during this time,
the great majority of teacher education programmes led from universitiesand colleges were informed by some version of ‘reflective teaching’.
2.3.3 The enquiring teacher
Reflective teaching does not in itself imply a research orientation on the partof the teacher, although the model may be strongly influenced by a set ofideas that do promote just that conception. In the UK, the origins of thenotion of ‘teacher as researcher’ are usually associated with thegroundbreaking work of Lawrence Stenhouse (1975), who, especially duringhis time at the University of East Anglia and in the establishment of CARE
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(Centre for Applied Research in Education), argued that teachers should
indeed take a research approach to their work. That is, they should beencouraged to undertake systematic enquiry in their own classrooms andshare their insights with other professionals. Such ideas have been taken up,developed and enhanced through a range of subsequent initiatives, mostfrequently associated with university staff working in partnership withteachers and lecturers in schools and colleges. Very frequently the term‘action research’ is associated with these approaches, and a number ofexemplary texts may be consulted to develop an understanding of the rangeof approaches (Carr and Kemmis, 1986; Walker, 1985; Elliot, 1991;Whitehead and McNiff, 2005). Actual accounts of teacher enquiry andresearch may be found in a number of monographs (Armstrong, 1980;Rowland, 1984) and in edited collections (Webb, 1991; McNamara, 2002).
It is also to be noted that, at various times, such approaches have received
‘official’ endorsement through funded schemes (see McNamara, 2002;Hulme, Menter et al., 2010). Indeed a range of recent initiatives concerningaccomplished teachers, and even initial teacher education, have introduced astrong enquiry element into the frame. Teacher enquiry frequently figureswithin contemporary approaches to professional development (Campbell
et
al., 2004; Campbell and Groundwater-Smith, 2010). So, it seems possible for
the enquiring teacher model to be compatible with the effective teacher.They are not necessarily polar opposites.
Furthermore, it may be noted that some of the most developed approaches
to teacher as researcher/the enquiring teacher have been developed outsidethe UK, in Europe (Altrichter
et al., 2007), North America (Cochran-Smith and
Lytle, 1993; 2009) and in Australia (Groundwater-Smith, 2006).
2.3.4 The transformative teacher
The final model to be put forward certainly incorporates, and indeed buildsupon, elements of the previous two. However, its key defining feature isthat it brings a political dimension into the approach to teaching. If theprevalent view of the teacher is someone whose contribution to society is totransmit knowledge and prepare pupils for the existing world, the view hereis that teachers’ responsibilities go beyond that. They should indeed be
24

contributing to social change and be preparing their pupils to contribute to
change in society. The philosophical origins here are in the ideas of ‘theorganic intellectual’ as notably developed by Antonio Gramsci and thenenacted in a variety of forms and locations by such radical educators asPaolo Freire in Brazil (1972), Herbert Kohl (1977) and Jonathan Kozol (1993)in the USA (see also Apple & Beane, 2007 or the journal
Rethinking
Schools ), and RF Mckenzie (1970) or Chris Searle (1972) in the UK.
The most recent and cogent articulation of this model is that set out by the
Australian teacher educator, Judyth Sachs (2003). Such approaches may beseen as disruptive and potentially subversive, and at the very least are likelyto cause some friction within the system. Nevertheless, those whoadvocate teaching as a transformative activity will suggest that suchturbulence is not only to be expected but is a necessary part of bringingabout a more just education system, where inequalities in society begin tobe addressed and where progressive social change can be stimulated.
2.4 Teaching in the 21st century
In the 1970s, Eric Hoyle wrote an influential paper that suggested thatmodels of teaching existed at some point on a continuum between‘extended’ and ‘restricted’ versions of professionalism (Hoyle, 1974).Crudely speaking, the first model depicted above, ‘the effective teacher’,rests at the restricted end of the spectrum, with the other three at variouspoints towards the extended end.
In some respects these extremes correspond to a performativity-oriented
approach as compared to a creativity-oriented approach. It is not that theformer requires less skill on the part of the teacher than the latter. Indeed, itwould be widely agreed that even the most performative technicistapproach to teaching – to be carried out well – requires great skill on the partof the teacher. Rather, it is suggested that the performative approach isbased on the supposition that successful outcomes and appropriate actionson the part of the teacher can be predicted and indeed measured orassessed. The more creative approaches associated with transformative,enquiring and reflective models are much more difficult to assess and willinclude significant elements of unpredictability, both in teacher action and in
25

outcomes. There is less certainty in such approaches and more active
decision-making on the part of the teacher.
The debate will no doubt continue. However, it might be argued that such is
the unpredictable nature of social and economic development at this point inthe 21st century (Menter, 2009a), that teachers might best be prepared asprofessionals who can deal with uncertainty and who will prepare theirpupils for a continually changing world. Nevertheless, we might wish tosuggest that there are some fundamental values that underlie the moralobligations on teachers, that include respect for and belief in their pupils, anda commitment to reducing inequality and challenging injustice, both in andthrough education.
As we shall see in the next section, these contemporary challenges, and the
range of models of teacher professionalism and teacher formation that havedeveloped over the past, create a climate in which ‘teacher identity’ is farfrom being a simple uniform concept.
26

27

28…a large research team led by
Christopher Day (see Day et al.,
2006; 2007) examined therelationship between teachers’sense of well-being and theireffectiveness in the classroom …and demonstrated that there is acorrelation between howteachers feel about themselves,their commitment to teachingand the success of their work interms of pupil achievement.

293.1 Introduction
We have seen in the previous section how the ways in which teachers are
trained and prepared for their work have changed over the years and alsohow there are competing models of teachers’ work. In this section, we turnto the question of professional identities – that is, in essence, how teacherssee themselves and their work. This has become a topic of increasinginterest, partly in response to the changes that were discussed previously,but also as part of a wider interest in the significance of identity in social andeconomic life. Postmodern social theory has focused attention on the‘multiple identities’ that most individuals hold, relating to the range of socialrelationships and experiences that people have. Thus, a secondary schoolgeography teacher may have a professional identity within their own school,based on their relationships with other staff and pupils, an externalprofessional identity perhaps related to contacts in a subject association, atrade union identity and perhaps an identity as an examiner. But that sameteacher may also be a parent and/or a carer, an amateur musician, a memberof a political party and so on. These multiple identities combine to make thatperson what he or she is – and we haven’t even mentioned suchcharacteristics as gender, sexuality, ethnicity, nationality, religious or otherbeliefs or social class, all of which may contribute in some way to theparticular experience and expression of these identities for each individual.
So, in focusing on ‘teacher identities’ we should not be forgetting that the
work-related identities exist alongside that much wider range of identities. Inother words, there is a risk of being reductive in what follows. What we aretrying to identify here is the sense of teacher identity that is conveyed bythe phrase ‘this is how I see myself as a teacher’. Such a self-definingapproach is not as individualistic as it may sound initially, given that such aview of identity will be shaped in large measure by the social setting inwhich any individual teacher finds her/himself, be that at national, local orschool level. Discussions of teacher formation and professionalism aretherefore very relevant indeed, as well as more historically and culturallyinformed constructions. The different models of teaching that emerged fromthe previous section may well have a significant influence on the shaping ofteachers’ identities.
Furthermore, if we are interested in teachers and creativity, then the extent
to which teachers are autonomous in their professionalism and in how they3Teachers’ professional identities

30define their identities is likely to be an important aspect of this discussion.
Teachers’ creativity may be constrained by the expectations andrequirements laid down by the formal structures and institutions of anational education system, but there may well be scope for innovation andcreative development within that national system.
In a series of seminars held during 2005-06 in London, a range of
perspectives on these matters were explored. The series was entitled
Changing Teacher Roles, Identities and Professionalism . A very helpful
annotated bibliography to underpin this project was prepared by Hextall et al.
(2007)5. Additionally, an edited collection of papers from the series was
published as a book (Gewirtz et al., 2009). What follows draws partly on
these sources.
First, we review some general questions about approaches to professional
identity in teaching. We then look at the relation between teachers and theirspecialist subjects, and then at how teachers relate to pupils/children. Theformer tends to relate to teachers of secondary school children, the latter toteachers of younger children, in early years settings and the primary school.We then consider some comparisons with professional identity in otherspheres of work, before concluding by considering the question of identity inthe context of globalisation.
3.2 Professional identity
Approaches to defining professional identity draw on both sociological andpsychological perspectives. Indeed, any discussion of identity is very much aconsideration of the interaction between an individual and society. We maythus be concerned with individual thought, perception and experience (verymuch the terrain of the psychologist) and with social institutions andstructures and cultures (very much the terrain of the sociologist – andsometimes the anthropologist).
A series of ethnographic studies, initially inspired by the work in the 1960s
of Lacey (1970) and Hargeaves (1967), began to convey the nature ofteachers’ working identities in England. For example, Ball (1981) andBurgess (1983) carried out institutionally-based studies of secondary
5This is available at http://www.tlrp.org/themes/seminar/gewirtz/papers/bibliography.pdf

31schools. Or, in the primary sector, there were studies by King (1978), Hartley
(1985), Sharp and Green (1975) and Pollard (1985) which analysed theschool culture and had a fair amount to say about the ways in whichteachers saw their working world. The impact of managerialism on primaryteachers has been an element in more recent primary school studies byAcker (1999) and by Willmott (2002).
Indeed, one of the most interesting aspects to emerge from this work is the
difference between the professional identities of primary and secondaryteachers. Primary teachers, it is suggested, most strongly relate to the child,by contrast to secondary teachers who may relate more directly to theirsubject specialism.
But there has also been a stream of very relevant work that drew more
from historical analysis and economic theories. This examined therelationship between teachers and the state, and drew on labour processtheory in order to explain something of the balance between ‘structure’ and‘agency’ in the working lives of teachers. Key contributors to this work haveincluded Gerald Grace, Jenny Ozga and Martin Lawn. In his more recentwork, Stephen Ball has returned to the topic of teachers within hisdistinctive approach to policy sociology and has particularly considered theimpact of performativity on teachers’ working lives.
Life history studies have also made a distinctive contribution to our
understanding of teacher identities, with Goodson and Sikes (2001) beingespecially notable for their work in England. Finally, there has been a rangeof work focussing on sociological dimensions of ‘race’, gender and socialclass that have added to our understanding. We turn first to consider workon secondary school teachers.
3.3 Secondary school studies
Studies carried out in the 1960s of two single-sex boys’ schools, one asecondary modern school and the other a grammar school, by DavidHargreaves (1967) and Colin Lacey (1970) respectively, tended to focusmost centrally on the pupils and the social processes influencing theireducation, but the two books also reveal some interesting features aboutthe teachers. Certainly those in the grammar school tend to have had a

more successful education themselves and come more from middle-class
backgrounds than do the teachers in the secondary modern. Indeed thesecondary modern teachers tended to be somewhat disenchanted:
Many of the teachers were inevitably ambivalent about their jobs. From
their professional training they derived ideals of what they were expectedto achieve as teachers, but they were forced to deal with material whichwas frequently apathetic or intractable. They would thus tend to varybetween feelings of depression and frustration when they consideredtheir efforts to be without fruit or purpose, and moods of a more elatedand jocular missionary confidence. Because the rewards were so smalland intangible, it was the former mood which predominated, andteachers often blamed the home environment of the boys for many oftheir setbacks and failures as teachers. (Hargreaves, 1967:85)
A few years later, in an interactionist ethnographic study of another
secondary modern school, Peter Woods (1979) stressed the institutionalconstraints experienced by teachers (and pupils) that influenced their actionsand shaped their identities:
…the institution impinges on all. Teachers, too [as well as pupils], bound
by commitment, oppressed by growing demands and dwindlingresources, guided now by professionalism, now by humanitarian interestin their charges, and subject to the same bureaucratic forces, also areconcerned with establishing and maintaining identities within the school.(Woods 1979:248)
Later studies, by Ball in comprehensive schools (1981 and 1987) and by
Burgess (1983) in a Roman Catholic secondary school, also provide valuableinsights to the identity formation of secondary teachers.
Working in Switzerland, Huberman wrote what became a classic study of
secondary school teachers, which has been very influential in muchsubsequent work in Europe and America,
The Lives of Teachers . This was
originally published in 1989, then in English translation in 1993. Heinvestigated the working lives of 193 secondary teachers and came to twomajor conclusions. The first was that teachers tended not to consider theirown careers very systematically or even reflectively; indeed many ofHuberman’s respondents commented how novel and interesting theprocess of being interviewed for this study was. Secondly, he found that
32

teachers’ careers often developed in quite unexpected ways – ‘professional
career trajectories are not adequately linear, predictable or identical – areoften, in fact, unpredictable…’ (Huberman, 1993:264).
3.4 Teachers in primary schools
Jennifer Nias (1989), in her book Primary Teachers Talking , based on lengthy
interviews with about one hundred teachers, captures some core values thatseem important to primary teachers.
…teachers in English primary schools are socialized… into a tradition of
isolation, individualism, self-reliance and autonomy – on which high valueis attached to self-investment and the establishment of a personalrelationship with pupils. The teacher as a person is held by many withinthe profession and outside it to be at the centre of not only theclassroom but also the educational process. By implication, therefore, itmatters to teachers themselves, as well as to their pupils, who and whatthey are. Their self-image is more important to them as practitionersthan is the case in occupations where the person can easily be separatedfrom the craft. (202-203)
This was consistent with the view of teachers that emerged from Pollard’s
ethnography (1985) and indeed is consistent with the earlier ethnographicwork of King, Hartley and Sharp and Green, mentioned above.
In the years that followed, however, especially after the Education Reform
Act of 1988, there was increasing concern that the onslaught of newpolicies, initially on the curriculum and assessment and subsequently onteaching strategies, had severely undermined such a ‘self’-centred approachto primary teaching.
Although the first major study on the impact of the National Curriculum on
primary education focused very much on pupils and their learning, a strongstrand emerged that was about the work of teachers. This is very welldrawn together in the volume by Osborne
et al. (2000), What Teachers Do .
A smaller-scale study, based on investigation of a small number of primary
schools in one local authority (Menter et al., 1997), also demonstrated the
very conflictual experiences that the new policies were creating for many
33

teachers (see also Menter and Muschamp, 1999). The findings suggested
that these changes were part of a wider set of gendered social changesoccurring at that time:
The public and private accounts of the women teachers in our study are
not, it could be argued, reflections of their confusion, or theirconscientiousness (itself a very gendered term), or their falseconsciousness, nor yet entirely explicable through reference toincomplete processes of cultural change. Instead they may beunderstood as accurate reflections of the fragmented and fracturedidentities that are created by post-Fordist work forms, perhaps especiallyin the service professions and perhaps especially for women workers.(Menter
et al., 1997: 133)
This is echoed in Sandra Acker’s long-term study of one primary school,
which she called Hillview. She notes the gendered nature of the teachers’work and the conflicts that emerge when they feel they are not achieving asmuch as they would wish to:
Perhaps paradoxically, the attempt to do the impossible gave strong
impetus to the development of a caring, mutually supportive teachers’workplace culture. There was much at Hillview that could fit the‘women’s culture’ model, including a preference for sharing rather thandemarcating responsibilities; for participation over delegation; equalityover hierarchy; support over competition. Humour was integrative ratherthan divisive. There was a strong sense of community, sustained byrituals. (Acker, 1999:115)
A series of studies by Webb and Vulliamy indicated similar initial responses,
although in their later work they suggest that some aspects of the teachingstrategies are giving teachers an opportunity for ‘re-professionalisation’rather than ‘de-professionalisation’ (see Webb, Vulliamy
et al., 2004a,
2004b). As Hextall et al. (2007) summarise in one of their papers:
[It is] [b]ased on a collaborative research project in England and New
Zealand which examined the impact of education policy on primaryteachers’ work and professional identities. The researchers describe ashift in policy discourse from a ‘professional-contextualist’ conception ofteacher professionalism towards a ‘technocratic-reductionist’ conception,
34

associated with an increase in constraints on teacher autonomy. They
argue that teachers’ perceptions of the implications of this shift for theirsense of professionalism were largely dependent upon how extrinsicaccountability demands were filtered through the profession's definingquality, namely teachers' altruistic concerns for the welfare of thechildren in their care’ (Locke
et al., 2005:555).
In a series of qualitative studies of primary teachers, Peter Woods, Bob
Jeffrey, Geoff Troman and colleagues explore similar themes and suggestthat primary teaching has become increasingly stressful and the subject ofconsiderable emotional pressure. Nevertheless, they do identify teacherswho have developed strategies for dealing with these demands, but whobemoan the retreat from more holistic and humane approaches to their work(Woods and Jeffrey, 2002). Their 1997 book (Woods
et al., 1997) talked
about the reconstruction of teaching and teachers, largely as a result of theintensification of the work, through, among other things, the inspectionregime that had developed since the 1992 creation of Ofsted. Troman andWoods (2001) examined the range of causes of teacher stress andcompared two schools, one where stress levels were low and one wherethey were high. Carlyle and Woods (2002) studied primary teachers who hadbeen clinically diagnosed as subject to stress and found that very few ofthem were able to return to working in the context where this condition haddeveloped. Some of the factors that had given rise to their stress wererelated to the particular setting, others to the changing demands of the job,as they experienced them.
3.5 The contribution of policy sociology
The previous two sections have largely concerned school-based studies thatprovide significant insights on teacher identity. In this section we followanother strand of work. Although, as we shall see, some of it is basedwithin particular schools, it is distinctive in seeking to relate issues ofteacher identity very directly to questions of policy, politics and governance.This has become a particular field of interest in what has become known aseducation policy sociology (see Ozga, 2000 for an overview of thisapproach).
35

The first major study in this line of development was carried out by Gerald
Grace in the 1970s (Grace, 1978). In what he saw as a study in urbaneducation, and building on earlier work concerning role conflict for teachers(Grace, 1972), Grace examined how history and social structures influencedthe thinking and working lives of secondary teachers in inner London. In thisand subsequent work (Grace, 1984), Grace shows how teachers areexpected to uphold and promote moral standards. He is able to trace thisback to the very explicit Christian mission of the elementary school. In 1987the argument was developed further to explore how the relationshipbetween teachers and the State has developed (Grace, 1987).
Jenny Ozga and Martin Lawn shared an interest with Gerald Grace in class
relations and teachers, which they wrote about in an examination of teachertrade unionism (Ozga and Lawn, 1981) and then followed through in anumber of subsequent publications which focused on the labour process ofteaching and shared a structural and often historical approach as well (Lawn,1987; Ozga, 1988). Although this work is clear that teachers do have someagency, it also illuminates the institutional and governmental constraintsunder which teachers in the state system work. Indeed, by 1987, Grace wassuggesting that teachers had been depoliticised and ‘incorporated’ by thestate to such an extent that they wielded very little industrial or even‘professional’ power. If that was the case in 1987, there is little evidence ofany reversal of that process since, as we shall see.
Much of the recent research on teacher identity has focused on the impact
of performativity and new managerialism on the work and identity ofteachers. Ball (2005) writes of economism and ‘the end of authenticity’ indescribing how teachers’ identities, relationships and values have changed.Ball argues that there has been ‘a shift in emphasis in the concerns ofteachers from ethics to efficiency, a reconstruction of teachers astechnicians, the production of feelings of uncertainty, instability andontological insecurity and a growing emphasis on presentation and‘fabrication’’ (Ball 2005, cited in Hextall
et al. 2007:5). Nevertheless, far from
being deterministic, he does identify elements of agency in teachers’responses to these pressures and identifies how, in particular contexts,teachers retain some control of their working practices that derives in largepart from their own values and dispositions.
Using a very different kind of approach, a large research team led by
Christopher Day (see Day
et al., 2006; 2007) examined the relationship
36

between teachers’ sense of well-being and their effectiveness in the
classroom. This study (known as VITAE) was sponsored by government andother major agencies. The team studied 300 teachers in primary andsecondary schools across England at different stages of their careers, anddemonstrated that there is a correlation between how teachers feel aboutthemselves, their commitment to teaching and the success of their work interms of pupil achievement. The title of the book that arose from the projectwas
Teachers Matter: Connecting Work, Lives and Effectiveness , a reminder
that successful learning is dependent on teachers being positive aboutthemselves and about their pupils. As they put it, ‘teacher identities may bemore, or less, stable and more or less fragmented at different times and indifferent ways according to a number of life, career and situational factors’(2007:601).
So, to summarise, whatever methodological approach to the question of
professional identity is adopted, it does appear that the matter is a veryimportant one in terms of the quality of educational provision. We turn nowto matters of social identity of teachers and the intersection of these withprofessional identity.
3.6 Class, gender and ‘race’
The social composition of the teaching workforce may be looked at in twoways. First, there are concerns about the representativeness of theworkforce in relation to the wider community and in particular to the schoolpupil community (Menter
et al., 2006). It is widely acknowledged that there
is significant under-representation of teachers from minority ethnic groups,for example, especially in some parts of the UK. Similarly, teaching is aprofession that has become increasingly dominated, at least numerically, bywomen, especially in the primary sector, although women have not occupiedsenior posts in teaching on a proportionate basis. There have beenrecruitment initiatives at national and local levels designed to address the‘imbalances’ within the profession (Showumni and Constantine-Simms,1995; Menter, Hutchings and Ross, 2002).
The social class background of teachers has also, from time to time, been
seen as an issue. Historically, entry into teaching was depicted as one of themain avenues for ‘upward’ social mobility for working-class people. These
37

are important matters and do connect with matters of teacher identity, but
here it is more appropriate to focus on the second perspective on thesematters, which is to consider the
experiences of teachers in relation to class,
gender and race – that is, to consider questions around teacher identity andthe ways in which it is socially constructed.
There has been remarkably little recent work on social class and identity
among teachers. As suggested earlier, we may turn to the fiction of DHLawrence in the first part of the twentieth century to get some powerful, ifidiosyncratic, insights into the dynamics of social class, culture and teachingas a profession (
Women in Love, The Rainbow ). But there has been little
sociological work on this topic, at least in the recent past. One of the fewscholars who has had a continuing interest in these matters has been MegMaguire (2005); indeed she has had an enduring interest in ‘race’ andgender matters, as well as class, in her studies of teachers. In a fascinatinganalysis of the process of ‘class-crossing’, through exploring the experienceof one teacher in depth, she examines the impact of educationalexperiences and of joining the teaching profession on the self-image of awoman teacher from a working-class background. Through this woman’sexperience, she explores how the tiniest details of daily experience workingin a school may carry class-based messages that contribute to the relativepositioning of herself and of the pupils in the school.
There has been significantly more work in the last twenty years or so on the
ethnic identity of teachers. Such work as that by Osler (1997) and Callender(1997) has found, mainly using qualitative approaches – often interviewswith teachers from Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) Backgrounds – that atvarious stages in their teaching career, these teachers encounter challengesthat are in some way additional to those typically encountered by whiteteachers. A study by Basit
et al., (2006; 2007) examined the reasons why
minority ethnic students withdrew from initial teacher training courses.These were found to be largely similar to the reasons given by whitestudents who withdrew, although there were accounts of experiencingracism. They also suggest that BME students find that ‘the bar is slightlyhigher’ for them when it comes to their assessment. On entry into theprofession, some teachers from BME backgrounds have found themselvesbeing drawn into specialist ‘multicultural’ or bilingual support work, wherethey may be felt to have special expertise. However such routes may notlead to the same range of career prospects as more mainstream
38

opportunities. Unless there is a critical mass of BME teachers in a particular
setting, the research suggests that the experience can be a challenging –and not always positive – one. A number of support networks and self-helpgroups have been established, including sections within the teacher unions,which have undoubtedly helped to create a collective identity for many BMEteachers.
In relation to gender, as indicated above, the issue that is most often raised
is the shortage of men in the profession. But why is it important that thereshould be more men in teaching? The argument is often put forward thatboys need male teachers as ‘positive role models’ to assist their socialdevelopment. But these suppositions have been critically examined byCarrington and colleagues in a number of articles. In summarising their ownwork, Carrington
et al., (2007: 407) say:
In recent years, policy-makers in England, Australia and other countries
have called for measures to increase male recruitment to the teachingprofession, particularly to the primary sector. This policy of targetedrecruitment is predicated upon a number of unexamined assumptionsabout the benefits of matching teachers and pupils by gender. Forexample, it is held that the dearth of male ‘role models’ in schoolscontinues to have an adverse effect on boys’ academic motivation andengagement. Utilizing data from interviews with more than 300 7- to 8-year-olds attending primary schools in the north-east and south-east ofEngland, the paper sets out to scrutinize these claims. The findingsrevealed that the gender of teachers had little apparent effect on theacademic motivation and engagement of either boys or girls. For themajority of the children, the gender of the teacher was largely immaterial.They valued teachers, whether men or women, who were consistentand even-handed and supportive of them as learners.
In another paper, Carrington (2002) depicts primary teaching as a
‘quintessentially feminine domain’. He points out that male teachers canalso face particular problems concerning how they are perceived by others,and these problems may have a part in shaping their professional identities.He suggests that popular discourse tends to see male teachers in primaryschools as 'unusual', 'ambitious', 'odd' or even 'deviant'. In related work,Chris Skelton (2003) and Becky Francis (2008) develop the theme of thecomplexity of the gendered identities of male primary teachers. Foster and
39

Newman examine some of the challenges to their masculinity that male
teachers may experience in primary school settings (Foster and Newman,2005).
3.7 Life history
The personal dimensions of teacher identity come to the fore also in animportant related stream of work that is defined as ‘life history’. Theessence of this approach is the extended interview with teachers about theirlives and careers. The approach has been developed in particular by PatSikes, Ivor Goodson and a number of colleagues, and is represented througha series of publications (Sikes, Measor and Woods, 1985; Goodson, 1992;2003). Work of this kind can reveal depths of insight that are not easilyachieved using other methods. The ‘emotional landscape’ of teachingemerges powerfully from such work. At times, it can read likeautobiography, or indeed as fiction, and some writers have used fictionalforms of reporting their research. Of course, some teachers have actuallyused their experience as the basis of novels (see Menter, 2008 for examplesand further discussion of different methodologies in examining teacheridentity).
3.8 Teachers and other professions
One further perspective that may help to enrich our understanding ofteacher identity is that which seeks to compare teaching with otherprofessions. There has been a reasonable amount of work on ‘professionallearning’ across a range of professions. Less comparative work of this sort,however, has been done on professional identities. Stronach
et al. (2002)
have suggested that nurses’ professional identities have been in a state offlux, much like that of teachers. They consider ‘the interactions and tensionsbetween the ‘economy of performance’ and ‘ecologies of practice’
6
discourses that shape the professional identities of teachers and nurses.They seek to offer a ‘nuanced account of professional identities, stressingthe local, situated and indeterminable nature of professional practice, and
406These two phrases capture the tension between the growing influence of managerialism and the traditional
institutionally-based cultures of nursing.

the inescapable dimensions of trust, diversity and creativity’ (p. 109).
There is certainly scope for more comparative work of this kind to be
undertaken, including comparisons with other professions and occupations.There has been some investigation of the identity formation of teachereducators – mostly people moving from teaching in schools into academicposts in higher education – which is of some relevance to this discussionand shows that there are some similarities in the identity transformationswith those moving into nurse and social work education (Murray, 2007).
3.9 Globalisation and teacher identity
In a world which sees increasing ‘globalisation’, not only of the economy butalso of social provision including education, it is important, finally, to considerthe extent to which the features of professional identity we have beenconsidering in this section are part of an international pattern. There havebeen a number of cross-national comparisons of the nature of teachers’work, although not all of them have focused on matters of identity. At thelevel of the UK, some ‘home international’ work has investigated whetherthe processes of workforce reform in Scotland and England have had similaror differing effects on teachers and their identities (Menter, Mahony andHextall, 2004).
In the European context, Broadfoot and Osborn (1993) have compared the
work of French and English teachers and revealed a number of differencesthat emerge, both from the different governance of teachers in the twocountries and also from the different conceptions of culture and educationas revealed in curriculum and pedagogy. The enormous comparative work byRobin Alexander (2001), on primary education pedagogy in five nationsacross the world, shows very powerfully how teachers’ work relates tocultural and social contexts.
In the context of globalisation, Robertson (2000) suggests that teachers’
work is being reshaped in similar ways around the world. She detectsperformativity and elements of deprofessionalisation in many contexts. Bash(2005) argues that ease of access to information via the internetnecessitates a re-examination of the role and professional identity ofteachers and of the nature of their professional knowledge.
41

3.10 Summary
At the end of her review of the impact of recent education reforms on
teachers’ working lives, Helsby acknowledges the rise of the effectiveteacher model (see 2.3.1 above) and suggests that this poses a threat to thehealth of education:
Currently, it is rational management, systems-based approaches and
efficiency that are being rewarded, whilst traditionally feminine qualitiesand values such as intuition, caring and people-based orientations areoften belittled or ignored. Whilst this may accord well with a Tayloristview of the role of teachers as skilled but compliant technicians, it is atodds with a broader and more humanistic conception of them asindependent moral agents, entrusted by society to reconcile theconflicting demands of education within their classrooms and to bestmeet the needs of their students, often in unpredictable ways. (Helsby,1999:174-5)
The range of studies reviewed in this section has shown that there are
some core values that have typified teacher identity, which includecommitment to children, interests in particular curriculum subjects andsometimes a wider sense of moral duty and/or public service. When thisrange of values coincides with the policies and practices promoted at anational and local level, then teachers may feel reasonably fulfilled andindeed may feel that they can bring their own creativity to bear in their work.If, on the other hand, there are significant tensions between their valuecommitments and the policy context in which they are working, creativitymay only come into play as a form of resistance or even subversion. It is toaspects of this somewhat paradoxical quandary that we now turn.
42

43

44… we cannot expect learners to
become creative in anenvironment where teachers donot share the same opportunitiesto develop their own creativity.

45In this section, two complementary dimensions will initially be considered
– the extent to which teacher education is informed by ideas of creativityand the extent to which teachers are prepared to contribute in the creativeaspects of the curriculum.
4.1 Definitions of creativity
How we may understand the connections between creativity and teachingdepends very much on how we understand the term creativity. An earlierliterature review in this series considers the rhetorics of creativity,suggesting in a persuasive way that the term is used as a tool ofpersuasion rather than as a concept with a fixed meaning (Banaji and Burn,2006). In this context, one might point out that few would wish to supportuncreative – or non-creative or even anti-creative – teaching. There is nodoubt that the term is a ‘tricky’ one. As argued elsewhere (Hartley, 2003;2006; Hulme, Menter and Conroy, forthcoming, 2011), there does appearto have been a ‘creative turn’ in recent education policy at least in the UK– and indeed Creativity, Culture and Education (CCE) itself would seem tobe a part of that turn.
Tom Bentley of the Demos think tank offers a definition of creativity, as
follows: ‘Creativity is the application of knowledge and skills in new waysto achieve a valued goal’ (Bentley: 2001:136). He emphasises thatcreativity is a set of capacities that ‘can be learned’, which is of course ahelpful approach for educators, in contrast to those definitions which seecreativity as some fixed and ‘endowed’ capacity. In exploring what thismay mean for schools, he makes a point which is deeply salient to thisreview, that we cannot expect learners to become creative in anenvironment where teachers do not share the same opportunities todevelop their own creativity. In an education system for a knowledgeeconomy, he argues,
Teachers will need to model the kinds of learning behaviour which they
are seeking to develop among students, and be able to apply theirprofessional knowledge in contexts other than the classroom.
(Bentley, 2001: 138)4Creative dimensions in teacher
development and identity

In the previous section, we found evidence that many of the changes that
have occurred in the recent past, in the ways in which teachers’ work isdefined and managed, have had the effect of reducing individualprofessional autonomy. The key term that permeated much of thisdiscussion was performativity. So in this section an underlying question is,whether performativity and creativity are or are not counterposed. Is itpossible for creativity to be demonstrated within a performativeenvironment? Or does performativity stifle creativity? On the other hand,within a performative framework, might it be possible to measure teachercreativity, thereby endorsing it as a desirable element of teachers’ work?
Furthermore, is it possible for education to be a creative process without
teachers themselves being creative? Bentley’s argument above is that thisis indeed not possible. However, it could be argued that some of what isposited as ‘creative’ within pupil experience at school, could be producedwithout the need for the individual creativity of the teacher.
Flowing from this, then, there are therefore two particular dimensions that
are worthy of exploration. The first is the extent to which teachers’ work isin itself creative. The second is to ask whether curricula, as currentlyconstructed, create opportunities for teachers to explore creativity withtheir pupils.
4.2 Creativity in teaching
As we saw earlier, many of the research studies carried out on teachers’work, in the wake of the dramatic upheavals brought about following the1988 Education Reform Act, have emphasised the increasing centralcontrols on teachers. Work in early years, primary and secondary sectorshas suggested the encroachment of an increasingly ‘performative’ agendaon teachers’ work. Initially this was through a tightened control of thecurriculum and the introduction of increasingly frequent assessmentprocedures. During the 1990s and into the 21st century, additionalperformance measures were introduced directly into teachers’ workthrough performance assessment systems associated with new payregimes.
46

47Whilst the general tenor of much of this research is a somewhat pessimistic
one that suggests the deprofessionalisation of teaching, ‘the terror ofperformativity’ and ‘a discourse of derision’ (Ball, 2001 and 1990) thatteachers were subjected to, nevertheless, there is some evidence thatalthough experiencing considerable conflict through these reforms, therewere ways and means through which teachers were able to assert theirown values and commitments and to hold on to aspects of the professionalidentity of the kind reported in the previous section.
The work of Osborn
et al. (2000) captures this complexity well:
The many changes have centred on a progressive loss of professional
freedom to determine what and how to teach, which has resulted in aperceived loss of creativity and a more or less grudging compliance onthe part of teachers. The climate of increased managerialism based ontargets and performance indicators has served to reinforce thiscompliance and to encourage a sense of instrumentalism in the pursuitand judgement of learning outcomes. Where teachers have beenconscious of such an increased instrumentality in their teaching, this hasbeen experienced by some as a source of conflict. However, otherteachers, either as individuals or as groups, have been able to integratethese new pressures into their existing professional values. They havedeveloped more collegial ways of working and new understandingsabout how to achieve their underlying professional values. These have inturn become the basis for a new ‘professionalism’ which is a synthesisof past and present ideologies. (Osborn
et al., 2000: 232-333).
In other words, some teachers have deployed their own creativity in
mediating the policy changes that have been required. More recently,Troman
et al. (2007) suggested that in coping with the twin forces of
performativity and creativity, primary teachers in the schools they werestudying were using their creativity most effectively in responding to theperformative agenda, for example by finding creative ways of improvingtheir pupils’ results in tests. This seems to be a somewhat paradoxicaldeployment of creativity!
Concerns have also been expressed by more ‘establishment’ organisations
– outside of education per se – about the potentially damaging effects ofwhat the think-tank Demos called ‘test mania’. As Brehony says:

Demos has been identified by Hartley (2003), along with the
Department for Trade and Industry and the Department for Media,Culture and Sport, as sites where concerns were expressed in 2000,‘that an overly
dirigiste approach to the management of teachers and
an overly explicit classroom pedagogy would do little to release thecreativity and innovation which a knowledge based economy wouldrequire’ (Brehony, 2006:37).
There does indeed seem to be at present something of a contradiction
between the forces of performativity and creativity in schools, that isvisited most directly upon teachers as they go about their work inattempting to accommodate and respond professionally to both.
4.3 Creativity in the curriculum
It may be easier to identify creativity in a more straightforward way whenwe come to focus on the curriculum and consider the role of teachers insupporting the creative aspects of the curriculum.
Both in England and in Scotland, the approach to creativity in the school
curriculum, which in the past was most closely associated with the artssubjects (see Craft
et al., 2001), is now a wider conception that draws on
ideas about entrepreneurialism and so can be seen as touching many, ifnot most, curriculum areas (see Sefton-Green
et al., 2011, forthcoming).
Indeed, the current wave of curriculum reform that is happening in someshape or form across all four UK jurisdictions, appears to be repositioningteachers in their relationship with the curriculum. This is perhaps mostevident in Scotland, where the
Curriculum for Excellence is being
introduced. The boundaries between subjects have been weakened, sothat more interdisciplinary work is being encouraged in both primary andsecondary schools and teachers are being encouraged to develop thedetail of the curriculum themselves, ideally in collaboration with eachother, at a local level. This might be seen, at least to some extent, as a‘reprofessionalisation’ of teaching through curriculum reclassification.
Hartley (2006) describes the creative and affective turns taken by the
curriculum, especially in England, but is doubtful about the ‘authenticity’ ofthese developments, suspecting that in the current climate these
48

developments will simply be overshadowed by a continuation in the
instrumentalism that has dominated for the past twenty years. As he puts it:
What will count as creativity and emotion in education seems set to be
filtered through a modernist sieve, thereby producing (at least as policy)a pastoral or therapeutic bureaucracy. (Hartley, 2006: 69/70)
A similar set of concerns led Ecclestone and Hayes (2009) to talk about the
‘therapeutic turn’ in education ‘turning young people and adults intoanxious, cautious and passive individuals rather than aspiring, optimistic andresilient learners’.
So, creativity in the curriculum is not without its problems. However, the
creative turn and the therapeutic turn do not have to be associated witheach other. Few would argue with the view that it is desirable for pupils tobe encouraged to be creative and to be able to respond to the creativeoutputs and activities of others. Creativity can be associated with criticalityas well, of course: indeed one might expect that the more creative peopleare, the more dissent and diversity will emerge. These are not tendenciesthat are always welcomed in institutional educational settings.
4.4 Implications for teachers
Returning to Bentley’s definition of creativity, what then are theexpectations of teachers? What are the new ways in which teachers canuse their knowledge and skills to arrive at ‘valued goals’? The valued goalsmay relate primarily to the learning for the pupils with whom the teacher isworking, but may also relate to contentment and satisfaction with their ownwork. Thinking both of the past as well as of new opportunities that presentthemselves in the 21st century, we could list some dimensions of teachingthat may lead to greater creativity and may contribute at the same time tothe development of more positive teacher identities.
4.4.1 Teacher collaboration and enquiry
Although the conventional depiction of a teacher is as a sole adult within aclassroom teaching a class of pupils, there are many ways in which
49

collaboration and an enquiry approach can enhance their work. Models of
‘teacher as researcher’ (Stenhouse, 1975) or of the enquiring practitioner(Campbell
et al., 2004) are invariably propounded as necessarily
collaborative efforts. When teachers start to enquire into questions ofcurriculum, pedagogy and assessment within their own contexts, theoutcomes invariably meet Bentley’s definition. Valued goals are explicitlystated and such activities will lead to new approaches within theclassroom and school.
4.4.2 Pupil voice
An awareness of the significance of pupil or student voice has beengrowing over recent years. In part, this is no doubt a result of theincreasingly consumerist view of education. Ofsted reports, parentalsatisfaction, accountability generally, have all led to an aspiration to beresponding to the concerns and interest of learners across all educationsectors. In schools, the affective turn described above has also been arelevant influence here, with a recognition that schools have emotionalclimates too (sometimes equated with ‘ethos’), that are likely to have asignificant influence on pupils’ learning. While the channels ofcommunication of pupil voice may be much more ‘managed’ than theywere in some of the radical ‘pupil power’ experiments of the 1960s and‘70s, there is plenty of research evidence that the benefits of taking thisseriously are numerous (Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007). Again, suchconsiderations are very likely to lead to a more creative environment forboth teachers and learners.
4.4.3 Community engagement
Community engagement may take many forms. At the most immediatelevel, it may be simply ensuring that the parents, carers and families of theschool’s pupils have a meaningful relationship with the school. Parentsmay be seen as part of the wider resource of the school; and while it maybe hoped that they will be supportive of their own children’s education, inways appropriate to their stage of schooling, the parents may alsocontribute to more communal aspects of the school’s life, through input to
50

a range of curricular, extra-curricular, social and recreational activities. The
same may be said of local and regional community organisations. The ideaof the community school, which emerged strongly in the 1970s (Poster,1971) is perhaps making something of a return, as we see the promotionof such concepts as the ‘wraparound school’ and ‘learning communities’based on schools. Furthermore, the availability of new technologies (seethe next point) means that this wider community can be an internationalone relatively easily. The opportunities for teachers to connect globally, aswell as the opportunities for schools and their pupils to form links andalliances with their counterparts in varied parts of the world, create thepotential for intercultural learning of a new kind.
4.4.4 Exploiting new technologies
While the opportunities for global linking and international learning are oneresult of the availability of electronic technologies of communication, thereare also many ways in which new technologies can enhance learningwithin the school. The availability, through the internet, of innumerableresources means that pupils can have access to a vast range ofknowledge that could never have been included in textbooks or othertraditional resources. This immediately changes the role of the teacher,who, while still directing the pupils to particular resources, must inevitablyplay a greater role than before: supporting the pupils in developing theircritical faculties in judging the quality of resources and in making criticaluse of them – in the broadest sense of the term, media educationbecomes important for all teachers, not only those involved in ‘mediastudies’. The use of technologies such as interactive whiteboards, smartboards and PowerPoint presentations can streamline the deployment ofteaching resources in a way that would have been unimaginable only thirtyyears ago. However, again it is still crucial to remember that thetechnology is not the teacher, but is rather a tool and resource to bedeployed by the teacher and learner in pursuit of ‘valued goals’. Indeed, itis perfectly possible to incorporate new technologies into very traditional‘transmissional’ models of teaching.
51

4.4.5 Creative partnerships
One way in which all four of the previous points may be combined is
through the development of creative partnerships with external partners,something that we shall focus on in more detail in Section 6. The less thatteachers see themselves working in isolation within classrooms (orschools), the more they are likely to perceive opportunities for developingexternal partnerships. Again, partnerships in themselves are notnecessarily creative, but joint working of any kind between a teacher andothers is likely to lead to new ideas and to interesting curricular andpedagogical developments.
Each of these five suggestions about how teachers may respond to the
challenge of creativity does have implications for their professional identity.As teachers develop their work collaboratively with each other, respond topupils more dynamically, engage with their wider school community,respond to new opportunities provided by technology and considerworking in partnership with creative individuals and organisations, theycannot rest on a traditional notion of teacher as imparter of knowledge tochildren, let alone as the moral guide for children. There are of courselikely still to be strong elements of these dimensions, but they will becomplemented by this wider range of interactions, making the role andindeed the identity more complex and perhaps more challenging than everbefore.
52

53

54‘Flexibility is increasingly
demanded of those who make upthe education workforce – whosetraditional role boundaries are nolonger static, but open toquestion. Within this new realityis a tension concerning whoshould be providing the nation’sschooling.‘
(Butt and Gunter, 2009:154-5).

5Teachers working with others
55This section reviews recent developments in definitions of teachers’ work
arising from changes in the education workforce as well as the growth ofconcerns about inter-professional working that have surfaced in the context ofchild protection. These themes are explored to indicate how some of thetraditional boundaries of teacher professionalism are being stretched and/orpermeated.
5.1 Teachers – not always a full-time permanent classroom post
The job of teaching has been re-shaped in a number of ways over recentyears. There is increasing recognition that teaching may not be a lifelongcareer. People may choose to join the teaching profession as a second or thirdcareer, or enter the profession immediately after completing their degree as ashort term posting before taking up their ‘substantive’ career, as in the
Teach
First scheme in England. But this section of the report is less concerned with
career changers and their effect on the reshaping of teaching. Rather, what weconsider here are: firstly the differing types of teaching contracts that may beundertaken and roles outside the classroom that teachers undertake, andsecondly (in 5.2), the increasing range of non-teacher roles that are available inschools, roles which complement the work of teachers themselves. Then, in5.3, we consider the impact of the encroachment of private sector companiesinto educational provision by the state.
The teaching workforce has become much more differentiated over recent
years. There have been an increasing number of part-time posts, and supplyteachers (i.e. temporary postings) have become a significant part of theworkforce. Studies carried out in Scotland and England in 2003-5 revealed thatsupply teaching contributes a great deal to sustaining the presence of a fullcomplement of teachers in schools (Menter
et al., 2004; Hutchings et al.,
2006). There is a sense, therefore, in which employment for many membersof the teaching profession has been casualised.
A growing number of teachers have been taking on new roles that have
become available as new policies have been developed at national and locallevel. Posts such as advisory teachers, literacy or numeracy consultants, activesports co-ordinators or indeed cultural co-ordinators, are almost always filled byteachers, many of them moving out of regular classroom teaching. In many

cases these posts are designed to bring about change in schools, the
postholders may therefore be seen as ‘change agents’ and will typically beworking in a number of schools to a brief determined by the local authority,albeit often concerned with implementing a new national initiative. Littleresearch has been carried out on this aspect of the re-shaping of the teachingworkforce (and the employment of many of them by private companies, see5.3 below).
On the other hand, there has been research on the ‘workforce remodelling’
(as it has been called in England) that has been common across the UK. Oneof the major planks of the English and Scottish workforce reforms at the turnof the century was the introduction of large numbers of new assistants ofvarious kinds. This had been signalled in the then newly-elected LabourGovernment’s Green Paper, published in 1998,
Teachers: Meeting the
Challenge of Change (DfEE, 1998). The huge expansion of ancillary staffing in
schools, from about 60,000 in 1997 to 177,000 in 2008 (as reported byBlatchford
et al, 2009), is underpinned by two official rationales. The one
most closely connected to ‘workforce reform’ has sought to reduce theburden of administrative and routine tasks on teachers, so that they couldgive more time to the more skilled aspects of their work with pupils. Therewas some concern from teachers, voiced mainly through their trade unions,that the huge expansion of this cadre of relatively low-paid education workersmight prepare the ground for a reduction in the numbers of teachers and thatsome ancillary staff might start to take over some of the core tasks ofteachers.
The second rationale has been developed over a longer timescale, and
concerns the requirements of children with special learning needs. Ever sincethe move towards the integration of children with ‘learning difficulties’ or‘additional support needs’ into mainstream schools, signalled by the WarnockReport on ‘special educational needs’ (1978), there has been recognition thatsuch integration may only be successful where staff are appointed to providespecialist support to teachers to help them manage the learning environmentfor a much more diverse group of pupils.
Indeed, for many years, teachers in schools and early years settings had been
working in collaboration with others, including what were sometimes referredto as paraprofessionals. For example, in nursery education settings, teacherswould typically be supported in a class by at least two qualified nursery
56

57nurses. In secondary schools, a number of technicians would typically be
employed to assist in science or art classes, through preparing resources andmaintaining equipment. The idea of collaboration with others, therefore, wasnot a new one for teachers.
However, the changes that followed from the 1998 Green Paper were on an
unprecedented scale and have not been without some controversy. Studieshave been carried out on the educational impact of the deployment ofteaching assistants, as well as on the actual nature of the work they haveundertaken. In England, the report by Blatchford
et al. (2009), on a recent
study funded by the DCSF and the Wales Assembly Government, found that:
… support staff presence resulted in increased individualisation of
attention and overall teaching, easier classroom control, and that pupilsshowed more engagement and a more active role in interaction withadults. This supports teachers’ positive view of support staff, but theirpresence also meant pupils’ contact with teachers declined and atsecondary level there was less individual and active interaction betweenteachers and pupils. (661)
A major study carried out in 2008/09 in England found many positive
outcomes from the
Workforce Remodelling process. Many teachers had
experienced a reduction in their administrative tasks, and the principle thatteachers should not take on administrative tasks was widely accepted. Manyof the teaching assistants were very positive about the work they weredoing. However, there was some concern that:
•Some support staff have taken responsibility for classes for longer than
intended, taking on responsibility for which they were neither trained nor paid.
•Some cover supervisors have undertaken specified work that was not
included on their job descriptions.
•Support staff at all levels reported excessive workload, despite large
increases in support staff numbers. (Hutchings
et al, 2009:18)
Butt and Gunter (2009) summarise a review of such developments in a
number of countries, including England:
Flexibility is increasingly demanded of those who make up the education
workforce – whose traditional role boundaries are no longer static, but

open to question. Within this new reality is a tension concerning who
should be providing the nation’s schooling. This can be approached fromthe macro level – should education be seen as a public good, or a privateservice? Or from the micro level – should classroom teaching always becarried out by trained teachers? At the heart of this debate lies theprofessional identity of teachers, alongside the desires of both parentsand students that teaching should still be carried out by trainedprofessionals. (Butt and Gunter, 2009:154-5).
Teacher trade unions have expressed deep concern about the encroachment
into their members’ work domains that has occurred. There can be a realtension between on the one hand developing a flexible and collaborativeapproach, and on the other hand relinquishing the distinctive knowledge- andskill-set that enables teachers to justify their status and salary, that are usuallyconsiderably more than those of ancillary staff.
5.2 Teachers and inter-professional working
The other ‘boundary issue’ with teachers and teaching over recent years hasbeen a consequence of the promotion of inter-agency working and inter-professional working. These developments have been spurred in part by thesequence of heavily publicised events in which individual children have beensubjected to neglect and/or abuse. Among the best known cases are those inLondon of Victoria Climbié in 2000 (which led to the Laming Inquiry) and‘Baby Peter’ in 2007 (leading to a second Laming Inquiry). In Birmingham in2008, the death of Kyra Ishaq occurred following her removal from school tobe educated at home, even though concerns about her welfare had beenreported by teachers to social services.
One of the common messages to emerge from the aftermath of these tragic
cases has been that the possibility of further such occurrences is likely to bereduced if all agencies with child welfare concerns are working more closelytogether. There has been a huge shift to the provision of ‘children’s services’rather than education and social work and health. This is reflected in therenaming and reorganisation of local authority departments across the UK andby the renaming of the Government Department in England, to become theDepartment of Children, Schools and Families, in 2008. In England, thisprocess had been given enormous impetus by the launch of the
Every Child
58

Matters programme in 2003, and also by the Sure Start programme for early
years provision.
While these moves do not imply teachers taking on the work of social
workers or health visitors, they do imply teachers working more closely withthese other professionals and also imply greater awareness of the skills andexperience of these colleagues. There are sometimes tensions and identityconflicts arising from these developments. As Hulme and Cracknell (2010)put it:
Professionals working within integrated contexts now relate to an
increasing number of partners, which raises significant issues forprofessional learning and practice… The existence of multiple identities incomplex teams presents a number of challenges: the generation ofshared understandings and a shared language across the differentknowledge bases informing professional practice (for example, medical,social, psychological and educational) and the diverse settings,communities and cultures. This new terrain requires new forms ofcollaborative working and a commitment to the co-construction ofknowledge. (55)
The sorts of border skirmishes about the roles of teachers described in this
section are also happening in other developed countries (see also Menter,2009b).
5.3 The rise of the private sector
A third way in which the professional identity of teachers has been affectedin the recent past has been the significant growth of the private sector withineducation service provision. Throughout most of the twentieth century,teachers working in state-funded schools would see themselves very muchas public servants. By and large, they would see themselves as verydistinguishable from teachers working in private schools, and few teacherswould move between the two sectors. However, under the laterConservative administrations of the 1990s and certainly following the electionof New Labour in 1997, the boundaries between public and private sectorhave been becoming increasingly porous. One of the first manifestations ofthis was in the rapid growth of private employment agencies as a major
59

source of supply teachers. Whereas in the past, each school had tended to
have its own list of supply teachers or would call on a list held by the localauthority, employment agencies were taking over the role of managing anddeploying supply teachers. Some of the organisations were existingemployment agencies that branched out into teaching, others were set upspecifically as education agencies. Then, following the creation of Ofsted in1992 and the new approach to school inspection, many new companies wereset up, often by former teachers or local education authority staff, to securethe commercial contracts to carry out inspections. Such approaches developedfurther after 1997, and much of the implementation of the new performancepay system that followed the Green Paper (such as ‘threshold assessment ofteachers) was largely carried out by private sector companies (see Mahony
et
al., 2002).
There has thus emerged a large cadre of education professionals – most of
them teachers at one time – who are not employed by a school or a localauthority or even by the government, but by a private sector company. Themanagement of many local authorities has also been taken over by privatefirms, often after the previous public administration was found to be lacking (bya private service company inspection). The most detailed account of thispenetration of a key public service by the private sector, funded by taxpayers’money, is provided by Ball (2007) in his book
Education plc.
5.4 Conclusion
In this section we have considered a number of ways in which theorganisation of teachers and their work has been changing. Firstly, there hasbeen a process of greater casualisation with more deployment of short-term,part-time and supply posts. Secondly, there has been the introduction ofgreatly increased numbers of non-teaching staff into school settings. Thirdly,we have seen teachers being required to be much more active in theirrelationships with other professionals, particularly in health and social work.And finally, we have seen how employment through private sectororganisations has become almost commonplace in state education. These areall examples of former boundaries being transgressed, and each of them hassome impact on the way in which teachers see themselves and their work.
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61

62‘Artists in schools can help raise
pupils' self-esteem, enhance theirlearning of core skills, contributesignificantly to the quality ofschool life and widen children'shorizons.’
(Ofsted 1999)

6Creative partnerships working in
the classroom
In this section, we consider some examples of teachers working with creative
partners in their classrooms and schools. Firstly we look at some of theexisting published research, and secondly at some of the work currentlyunder way.
6.1 Teachers working with artists
Previous sections of this report have considered questions of teacher identitymainly in general terms. We have seen both how significant questions ofidentity are in the working lives of teachers and how there have been shifts inthese professional identities and also in changing relations with other workersin schools. In this section, we focus in to examine more closely theexperiences of teachers working in creative partnerships with others. A rangeof approaches have been used, and these are reviewed and commentedupon with the aim of developing an understanding of the factors that areimportant when considering how best to engage teachers with creativepartners.
The longest established partnerships of this kind may be theatre-in-education
projects, artists in schools, visiting musicians and writers and, sometimes,work with museums. Many such initiatives have relied on local funding, eitherfrom the school or the local authority or from regional or national arts bodies.It would be fair to say that in most such work, until very recent times, anumber of assumptions have been made about how to approach the projects.In 1999, Ofsted published a review on artists in schools under the rubric:
Artists in schools can help raise pupils' self-esteem, enhance their learning
of core skills, contribute significantly to the quality of school life and widenchildren's horizons.
There has been a tendency in the past for the emphasis in this kind of work
to be on short-term enjoyment and development, with less attention tolonger-term learning or to sustainable cultural change in schools. In manyways, that is precisely the challenge that the work of CCE, through theCreative Partnerships programme, sought to take on.
In her evaluation of
Artists in Sites for Learning (AiSfL) , Pringle (2002) reviews
literature related to such work. She says:
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The history of the involvement of practising artists in formal education has
been charted by a number of writers. Burgess (1995), in a short history,identifies the early 1970s as the time when artists began to work inschools in the UK. A number of schemes were established to encouragethe links between artists and schools, including the ‘Artists in Schools’scheme set up by The Gulbenkian Foundation. The aims of these earlyschemes were broad and, interestingly, included providing employment forartists as well as enhancing schools’ arts provision. Throughout the 1970sand 1980s projects involving artists in formal education developed anddiversified to include a range of approaches and experiences, from theone-off visit to the longer term residency. (18)
In carrying out her evaluation of the particular project AiSfL, she sets out a list
of possible relationships between an artist working in schools and the‘participants’:
•artist as educator
•artist as collaborator
•artist as social activist
•artist as role model
•artists as researcher/enquirer.
Each of these approaches seems to have validity, but each one has slightly
different implications both for the pupils and for the teachers. Indeed, it isinteresting to consider whether the artist working in school sees her/hisprimary partners as the pupils/students or as the staff, including the teachers.If it is the pupils, then the teacher who usually has full responsibility for thosepupils will need to adjust that relationship to allow ‘space’ for the artist tomove into. On the other hand, if the artist sees the teacher as the primarypartner, there again the teacher will need to work with the artist to find amutually productive way of collaborating. In reality, in most situations thereare likely to be elements of both sets of relationships, making the situation, atleast potentially, very complex indeed. Given that each arrangement is(usually) time-bound and context-specific, the challenges are somewhatdifferent for teachers than they are when establishing a way of working withregular education employees (teaching assistants etc).
Pringle also identifies that artists working in teaching and learning contexts are
very often deploying skills and insights that overlap with those of teachers.
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65The extent to which artists are aware of or draw on particular pedagogic
theories is not clear from the literature, although descriptions of theiractivities suggest they exemplify good ‘teaching’ practice, particularly inrelation to creative and collaborative teaching and learning. (2002: 31)
Tarr (1996) reports on an in-service initiative that brought artists and teachers
together to develop ways of collaborating effectively: She writes that as partof the process,
Artistes and teachers worked together in schools for a day, thus
maintaining a classroom focused approach, which aimed to enhance andenrich the arts education of pupils in the schools represented. Throughthe process of reflection-in-action teachers and artistes were encouragedto theorise from their practice in order that they might develop theirpedagogical perspectives of arts education.
Hall
et al. (2007) offer a fascinating insight into the comparison of artists’ and
teachers’ pedagogical practice (see also Hall and Thomson, 2007). Theyinvestigated the interaction of artists and teachers in one primary school.Effective partnership work, they conclude:
…relies on teachers and artists being willing to work together as partners,
to respect one another’s expertise and to give time to exploring theoreticalstandpoints and analysing pupils’ work. (Hall
et al., 2007: 617).
In a project funded by Creative Partnerships Nottingham in its early days,
Morwenna Griffiths and Felicity Woolf trialled what they called ‘anapprenticeship model’ for learning for the arts. They were interested in thelearning of pupils, artists and teachers in their scheme which suggests fourstages of arts practitioner development: observer, participant, novice andindependent. In relation to teachers and other staff, they reported
…a great deal of evidence that teachers, teaching assistants and school
technicians had gained skills and confidence which will enable them tooperate independently in new areas. We would interpret this as adultlearners who have reached the stage of independent practitioner (Griffithsand Woolf, 2009: 570).

666.2 Recent research
Creativity, Culture and Education (CCE) has commissioned a number of studies
from the National Foundation for Educational Research. In their evaluation of thefirst two years of Creative Partnerships (Sharp
et al., 2006) some findings
emerged about what made for successful partnership work. The attitudes ofschool staff were found to be very important:
Participants felt that staff attitudes were an important contributory factor.
School staff had to be willing to invest time and interest in the projects andto be flexible enough to alter their practice in order to accommodate projectrequirements. Similarly, Creatives needed to be committed to the projectsand willing to work with the staff to ensure that projects met school needsand realised their potential.
Several of the participants spoke of the importance of “true partnership”
between all involved. This meant that everyone (school staff, young peopleand Creatives) had a stake in the project and a commitment to making itwork. It also meant the active involvement of young people as creativeindividuals, not just following a formula laid down by adults. (228).
This, of course, resonates with some of the comments made in an earlier part
of this review (see sections 2 and 3).
One study (Downing
et al, 2007) looked at how teachers share experiences
concerning creativity and found that those they interviewed used a range ofmeans to do this. A more recent NFER project, is entitled
Evaluation of the
nature and impact of the Creative Partnerships Programme on the teaching
workforce (NFER, 2010). The report from this relatively large-scale study offers
a useful typology of four different ‘domains’ of impact on teachers:
•personal impacts
•interpersonal and leadership impacts
•teaching and learning impacts
•career impacts.
It was the first two of these which were most prevalent for the teachers
surveyed in the study. This can be seen from the list of the most commonlyreported impacts on teachers which emerged:

67•development of skills for working with creative professionals
•enhanced confidence to try new things and to ‘have a go’
•provision of skills to help children to be more creative
•enhanced enthusiasm for their job
•development of the curriculum in their key stage, department or school
•communication and sharing of their learning with other teaching
colleagues
•development of skills for leading projects.
The study found that the overall impact on teachers of their involvement with
Creative Partnerships is overwhelmingly positive, and indeed, that muchprofessional development is achieved through such work.
In pursuing the realisation of the full potential for the enrichment of
educational experiences through teachers working in partnership withcreative professionals, it will continue to be important to provide opportunitiesfor both sets of partners (i.e. teachers and creative professionals) to engagein appropriate professional development. Much of this will be for servingteachers and artists, but there is also a need to consider how such work canbe more routinely integrated into initial teacher education and training.

68These five strands [teacher
collaboration and enquiry, pupilvoice, community engagement,exploiting new technologies andcreative partnerships] may allcontribute to the re-emergence ofa confident professionalismamong teachers that will becongruent with a reconstructedprofessional identity better suitedto the twenty-first century. Whileacknowledging the need for publicaccountability in their work,teachers may also celebrate thisnew professionalism as being onethat is based upon a recognitionof their distinctive contribution tosociety through the education ofchildren.

7Conclusion
Through reviewing the changing experiences of teachers in their
professional development and work over the twentieth century and into thecurrent century, we have seen how their professional identities have beenthe subject of a significant amount of change. The historical commitment topublic service, and often to a moral standpoint in their work, has beenchallenged as the definitions of teaching have become more precise – somewould say formulaic and technicist. The scope for an enhanced form ofprofessionalism has apparently diminished. However, parallel with thistendency there have been at least two other significant factors at play. Oneis a rhetoric of greater professionalism and of contributing to thedevelopment of a world-class education service that can play its part insupporting the country to compete in the global knowledge-based economy.Education has become more directly connected to the economy. But then,secondly, the professional demands on teachers have become morecomplex, especially in relation to working with other professions and in theiraccountability to parents and the community.
Their success in fulfilling these latter responsibilities includes success in
implementing more creativity into the curriculum and in working effectivelyin inter-professional ways with and alongside others. This is propitious forthe further development of creative partnerships in schools and classrooms.
In Section 4, a number of areas were identified that could be developed to
enhance the overall professionalism of teachers’ work. In conclusion, wenow reiterate these and suggest what the implications might be for thedevelopment of further effective creative partnerships.
•teacher collaboration and enquiry
•pupil voice
•community engagement
•exploiting new technologies
•creative partnerships.
These five strands may all contribute to the re-emergence of a confident
professionalism among teachers that will be congruent with a reconstructedprofessional identity better suited to the twenty-first century. Whileacknowledging the need for public accountability in their work, teachers mayalso celebrate this new professionalism as being one that is based upon a
69

recognition of their distinctive contribution to society through the education
of children. This identity is more complex and multi-faceted than previously,because of the growing range of expectations and relationships that theynow experience.
As more sophisticated forms of professional development are constructed
to respond to these changes, it will be important that all five strands aretaken into account. This will be crucial in initial teacher education, in earlyprofessional development – including the new MTL programme in England –as well as in CPD for experienced teachers and school leaders. In parallelwith this, where creative partnerships are being developed and promoted,then firmly grounded opportunities for professional development should alsobe provided for those entering into these partnerships with teachers.
70

71

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Other titles in the series:
Childhood, culture and creativity (Jackie Marsh, Sheffield University – 2010)
analyses the literatures exploring the relationships between childhood cultures andcreativity of young children.
Whole school change (Pat Thomson, Nottingham University – 2010 – 2nd edition)
offers a serious and robust review of change theory which should be of use to allpractitioners and educators with ambitions to effect structural and systemic change.
Rhetorics of creativity (Shakuntala Banaji and Andrew Burn with David
Buckingham, Institute of Education, University of London – 2010 – 2nd edition) is animportant and original report that surveys the core concept of creativity.
Arts in education and creativity (Mike Fleming, Durham University – 2010 – 2nd
edition) offers an historical and theoretical overview of arts education over the last120 years and its relationship with creative learning and creativity in education.
Consulting young people (Sara Bragg, Open University – 2010 – 2nd edition)
highlights why young learners should be listened to, and explains how to go about itto generate genuine dialogue and collaboration.
The cultural and creative industries (Justin O’Connor, Queensland University of
Technology – 2010 – 2nd edition) is a history of the formation and definition of thecreative sector from its roots in artistic practice to more recent developments underNew Labour.
Culture and creative learning (Ken Jones, Keele University – 2009) offers an
historical and theoretical overview of the idea of culture in English policy, practiceand cultural theory.
‘Art Works’ – cultural labour markets (Kate Oakley – 2009) examines the policy
literature and sociology describing the nature of work in the cultural industries.
The visual in learning and creativity (Carey Jewitt, Institute of Education,
University of London – 2008) offers an historical and theoretical overview of the‘turn to the visual’ and the communication landscape in late modern society.A series of research monographs exploring key issues in current literature and
summarising the latest developments in the fields of creativity and learning.
This literature review provides an overview of how teachers have been trained
since the late 19th century up to the present day, and considers connectionsbetween creativity and teacher identity.