1.1 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNI CATION COMPETENCE : A PRECONDITION OF TH E CONTEMPORARY INDIVID UAL 3 1.2 THE INTER – AND TRANSDISCIPLINAR Y DIMENSION OF… [605965]

INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 1 3
1.1 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNI CATION COMPETENCE : A PRECONDITION OF TH E
CONTEMPORARY INDIVID UAL 3
1.2 THE INTER – AND TRANSDISCIPLINAR Y DIMENSION OF INTER CULTURAL
COMPETENCE 8
1.3 THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL IZATION EFFECTS ON C ULTURE AND COMMUNICA TION
12

CHAPTER 2 15
2.1 ENHANCED INTERCULTURA L COMPETENCE : EFFECTIVE COMMUNICAT ION
ACROSS LANGUAGES AND CULTURES 15
2.2 THE CULTURAL SHIFT IN TRANSLATION STUDIES TO ADEQUATELY ENGAGE
INTERCULTURAL COMMUN ICATION 17
2.3 THE INTERCULTURAL COM MUNICATION COMPETENC E AS A CONTEMPORARY
VISA FOR THE INTERNA TIONAL PROFESSIONAL SETTING 20

CHAPTER 3 22
3.1 CULTURAL CONTRASTS AM ONG TOURISM PRACTICE S: A CASE STUDY 23
3.2 FRAMING THE SETTING : APPLIED INTERCULTURA L COMMUNICATION IN
TOURISM 24
3.3 THE ROLE OF TRANSLATION AS INTER CULTURAL COMMUNICATI ON SKILL IN
TOURISM 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY 28

1
Introduction

The world we live in is continuously transforming into a global village (Marshall
McLuhan, 1962) that allows us to meet people from the other side of the globe in an instant
via technology. Furthermore, it has become common activity for individuals of all ages,
genders and cultures to travel the world, to actively participate in multicultural environments
and share the knowledge and impressions about other cultures with their peers. This curiosity
and spiritual need to enter cultures different than their own have offered entrepreneurs and
investors a wide range of business opportunities in the travel domain. Thus a new skill is
being mentioned more and more in the job description for those that work in international
environmen ts, and simply put, for those who work with people in general: the intercultural
communication competence. What is it and how can we assure ourselves that we have
acquired this competence for our future jobs as translators? Our thesis addresses the
contemp orary increasing demand for intercultural communication competence among
individuals belonging to different cultural landscapes, in general, and for tourism -related
employees, in particular, as mediators directly involved in inter – and cross -cultural
commu nication.
Aiming to profile contemporary intercultural communication competence, we have
structured our thesis into three main chapters. In the first two chapters we set out to define
and throw light on the multifaceted concept of intercultural communicati on, via an integrative
perspective closely related with other sciences, and especially with the field o f Cultural
Studies, Linguistics and Translation Studies. In chapter three we tackle some translation –
oriented issues related to cultural behaviours and p ractices among tourists in Europe and in
Romania.
The purpose of Chapter 1 is to provide some key conceptual tools for a better
understanding of the concepts of culture, communication and globalization. The chapter
explores various approaches to the way cu lture and communication have been framed in the
process of multiculturalism. Special attention is paid to intercultural communication
competence and its active impact in close -connected areas of research in general, and, within
the field of Translation Stu dies in particular. Such knowledge is fundamental if we are to
fully understand the complex nature of intercultural communication and hope to understand
the essential intersection of international commerce, communication, culture, synergy and the
global or ganization.

2
The second chapte r
The third chapter…

3
Chapter 1
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

This chapter focuses on the widely used notion of intercultural communication and its
defining characteristics in the field of translation, education and social sciences, not without
shedding light upon the facts for which it has become crucial to each of us to have some
degree of intercultural communication competence. In addition, the subject of globalization
will be discussed and the reason why it ha s taken its toll upon civilization, education and
work and why it is constantly changing our views towards a better world.

1.1 Intercultural communication competence: a precondition of the
contemporary individual

Intercultural communication has been disc ussed and defined thoroughly in plenty of
books and papers. From these ones, here are gathered the ones that are the most compatible in
our field of work and that offer a more complex definition, rather than a dictionary
explanation.
Intercultural communi cation or communication between individuals coming from
different cultural backgrounds has always occupied an important role in the precondition of
human coexistence on Earth. The term intercultural is preferred over the largely term cross –
cultural because it is linked to language use such as “interdisciplinary”, that is cooperation
between people with different scientific backgrounds. Perhaps the term also has somewhat
fewer connotations than cross -cultural. It is not cultures that communicate, but people (and
why not communities) with different cultural backgrounds that do. In general, the term
“cross -cultural” is probably best used for comparisons between cultures (”cross -cultural
comparison”). (Hall, 1990)
Intercultural communication can also be describ ed as the sending and receiving of
messages across languages and cultures. It is also a mediated understanding of meaning in
human experiences across social systems and societies. When we r efer to other cultures, we
do not mean only those who talk in a lan guage that is different from ours or those who live in

4
another country or state, but we also refer to those who live in the same city, neighbourhood
and maybe same flat, but who do not share the same values in social groups. Let’s take as an
example a 16 -year-old adolescent, who does not typically communicate as an 86 -year-old
senior man. The fact that they were born and raised in the same neighbourhood (either in the
city or in a rural area), does not imply that they will find the same connotation in their
speeches. On the contrary, their conversation could be just as “intercultural” as that of two
people who come from opposite corners of the globe because they come from two
subcultures.
Let us more closely analyse the concepts that can be found in the exp ression
“intercultural communication”. One of them is “culture” which has been analysed in several
different ways by different researchers. The term “culture” refers to the ever -changing values,
traditions, social and political relationships, and worldview created and shared by a group of
people bound together by a combination of factors, that can include a common history,
geographic location, language, social class, and/or religion. The fact that the members of a
group have four members is thus not a cultu ral characteristic but a natural one, while a
special but common way of gesticulating might probably be a cultural one.
The approaches to culture and conceptual taxonomies presented below (Schmidt,
2007, pag.24) provide frames of reference that allow us t o use culture -specific knowledge to
improve our intercultural awareness and competence. Nevertheless, one should always keep
in mind that the features of individual members of a culture may fluctuate from the typical
pattern of that culture, because it is easy to fall in the trap that a particular characteristic can
be present among all the members of a group at all times and in all contexts, thus generalizing
people and rising prejudices.
 Hall’s Low – and High -Context Cultures (1976). This taxonomy makes t he difference
between the implicit and the explicit rules and information in culture. High -context
cultures draw upon intuition and utilize an indirect style, the emphasis falling on
understatement and verbal codes, with much being taken from granted. Some
examples we can find in Asia, Latin America and Africa. Low -context cultures use
linear logic and a direct style of communication, thus the bond between people is
more tenuous and the extent of long -term relationships is lower because the emphasis
falls o n the individual. Examples include the United States of America and Western
European countries.

5
 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Variability (1979 -2000). Hofstede initially
developed four dimensions of cultural diversity that he divided as individualism –
collectivism, masculinity -femininity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
Even though it was critiqued by many as closed and reductive, Hofstede’s empirical
analysis continues to provide reasonable descriptions of the predominant tendencies in
the c ultural studies. Furthermore, his study determined that those working in
multicultural environments have to adjust their organizational culture to fit the beliefs,
values, and behaviours of the country in which they work in order to obtain global
success i n such complex arena.

 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientation (1961) represent deeply held beliefs
about how the world should be, and not fundamentally the way it is. According to this
taxonomy, a culture can be examined by the use of these dimension s: the human
nature orientation, the person -nature orientation, the relational orientation, the activity
orientation and the time orientation. One culture can be distinguished from another by
the combination of the specific solutions it selects for each se t of situations and how it
gives meaning to the different orientations.

 Parsons’s Pattern Variables (1951) is another view of cultural variability. There are
six pattern variables and they are exclusive orientations individuals consciously
and/or unconsci ously make: the self -collective orientation, the affectivity -affective
neutrality orientation, the universalism -particularism orientation, the diffuseness –
specificity orientation, the ascription -achievement orientation and the instrumental –
expressive orien tation. They describe ways people have learned to meaningfully
organize their experiences and perceive phenomena around them in a coherent and
orderly fashion.

The other term to look closely into is “intercultural”, an attribute that can be easily
juxtaposed to different circumstances where two or more cultures come in contact with each
other, determining some level of influence. Communication, education, the environment can
be intercultural, but so can skills and competencies be.

6
Intercultural comm unication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual
process where people from different cultures negotiate, at ranging levels of awareness, shared
meanings. What differentiates intercultural communication from other types of
communication is t hat people are interacting with people from other different cultures —
people perceived as “different ” (Gudykunst & Nishida, 1989). This perceived cultural
diversity and variability might include discrepancies in communication and social style,
worldview, cu stoms, traditions, norms, rules, roles and expectations. It is the communication
between this variety of people from diverse cultures that incites the further study on how
professionals succeed to accommodate, adjust and appeal to commonality —to exercise
cultural sensitivity and employ intercultural coping skills in their work environment.
UNESCO states that schools, as one of the most important institutions in society, have the
task of “developing the potential of the learners through the transmission of k nowledge and
the creation of competencies, attitudes and values that empower them for life in society”
(UNESCO 2007:12).
To enhance, the contact between people from diverse backgrounds is becoming more
and more common; therefore highly developed skills in intercultural communication can
considerably improve the quality of relationships between people, especially on an
international business level. In education, we should focus on this aspects at all levels,
particularly in academic education, because during their university studies, students come in
contact with others from diverse cultures and have the opportunity to participate in mobility
projects in foreign countries. University graduates need to prepare adequately for new social
situations and future jo b opportunities in their country or abroad. Students are expected to
achieve a general intercultural competence, which should include motivation and interest in
getting in contact with members of varying cultures, in respecting the habits and practices of
people from other cultures, in courtesy, friendliness, patience, empathy, tolerance, general
knowledge of cultural differences and last but not least, language skills.
“Cultural competence includes also intercultural communication, which is based on
tolera nce, understanding, recognition and a search for an objective assessment of a particular
socio -cultural phenomenon, represented by verbally or nonverbally” (Stern, 2003).
Intercultural competence is the ability to communicate efficiently with people from
other cultures, to comprehend the culture -specific psychological concepts of perception,
thinking, feeling and acting. As the world is expanding its cultural boundaries, intercultural
competence plays an important role in providing a high -quality service to people from

7
diverse cultural backgrounds. Thus, every person should struggle to improve his/her
intercultural communication competence and professionalism through a dynamic dialogue;
professionalism aids in overcoming language barriers and strengthening t he relationship
between a native and a foreigner. This does not exclude the basic communication level, from
using appropriate greetings to enabling correct physical contact, which can sometimes be
culturally tricky. Grasping intercultural competence allows a fluent social interaction and
mutual understanding between people of diverse cultures. Depending on the type of
interaction, some essential attributes for intercultural competence should include behavioural
flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, communica tive awareness , knowledge and understanding
about other cultures; respect for otherness, the attitude of modesty and respect, empathy,
metacommunication skills. A person can have one, two or more features that allow him/her to
handle an intercultural inter action in the correct way.
There have been conceptualized many models of intercultural communication
competence in order to suit diverse backgrounds (business , health care , organizational
management ). In the context of language learning, Byram’s (1997) model of ICC is one of
the most in fluential and widely cited models that guide language teachers to integrate
interculturality i n the clas sroom. Th e model includes five subsets of savoirs , or “knowledges ”
(p.34) (see figure 1) :
1. Attitudes relativizing self, valuing other ( savoir être );
2. Education: political education, critical cultural awareness ( savoir
s’engager );
3. Skills: discov er and/or interact ( savoir aprendre/faire );
4. Knowledge of self and other; of interaction: individual and societal (savoirs )
5. Skills interpret and relate (savoir comprendre )

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1.2 The inter – and transdisciplinary dimension of intercultural competence

The study of in tercultural communication would not be sufficient without the
correlation between it and the adjacent social sciences, such as anthropology , cultural studies,
linguistics and Translation Studies.
1.2.1 Intercultural communication and anthropology
Let us start by stating the obvious link between the study of anthropology and
intercultural communication, which is the study of humans and human communication in
different social groups from the beginning to the present. The subject of intercultural
communication tries to comprehend how people from different cultural backgrounds behave,
communicate and interact with their surroundings. On the other side, the role of an
anthropologist in the occupational world is found in the bridging between different societies,
namely the transfer of expertise, knowledge and services between different cultures.
One of the roles of an applied anthropologist in the occupational world exists in the
brokera ge between different societies. This involves some type of transfer of knowledge,
expertise, or service between distinct cultures (Chambers 1985: 26). Furthermore, the view
“from the ground up” is an important and critical contribution to the understanding of the
effects of public decisions (Chambers, 1985, p.28) Chambers specifies in his book “Applied
Anthropology – A practical guide” (1985) five separate roles of applied anthropologists within
the cultural brokerage. There would, firstly, be one as a repre sentative, whose purpose it is to
account or testify on behalf of the people they studied. Another one would be as a facilitator,
which includes activities directed towards causing a matter in a relationship between two or
more groups of people. It can fur ther be divided into a “top -down -approach” such as a field –
situated change agent or a “bottom -up-approach” like action anthropology. A further function
would be as an informant who transfers knowledge about one sector of society to another
one. The analyst ’s role is based upon consultation, where the anthropologist is an expert, who
is called upon to respond to specific needs for information or insight. He is an active
contributor to the formulation and investigation of applied research activities. The last task is
one as mediator. The intention is thus to treat each faction as an equal partner and participant
in obtaining solutions from compound social problems. It is argued, that “the role of the
mediator is compatible with the perspective of the anthropol ogist” for the reason that “it
encourages a holistic view developed around issues and events, supports public participation

9
in decision making, and acknowledges cultural diversity as a major concern in public
decision making” (Chambers, 1985: p.33). It can be said that new situations raise distinctive
learning prospects “and the practitioner's role changes in response to accumulated experience
and in relation to the changing needs and capabilities of the community served” (Peterson,
1987, p.263).
1.2.1 Intercultural communication and cultural studies
The beginn ing of theoretical representations about intercultural communication is
controversial. Literature is divided between who think that it should coincide with the United
States’ statement in the global context, on the contrary, who think we should refer to th e
studies of the Chicago School, which although not analyze dynamics of intercultural
communication processes, promote accurate reflections about diversity and relationship
among individuals from different cultural backgrounds. In the first case, Roger and Steinfatt
are among the scholars who most support the idea that the first analysis about intercultural
communication can be attributed to the Foreign Service Institute, which – after the Second
World War – prepared materials and lectures on different cult ural forms and various kinds of
communication to teach U.S. diplomats how to relate with citizens of nations to which they
were distributed. Many other experts believe in the importance of the post -colonial era, which
has allowed considering a number of fu ndamental issues. However, as mentioned, the
Chicago School for many remains the first theoretical reference. Authors such as William
Thomas, Floran Znaniecki, Robert E. Park and Georg Simmel have addressed issues such as
the theory of marginal man, social distance and ethnocentrism: all fundamental analysis for
the subsequent study relating to intercultural communication. In any case, there is no doubt
that more detailed attention to the discipline occurred in the first half of the last century. The
approv al of the Foreign Service Act (1946) and then the establishment of the Foreign Service
Institute (FSI) in the United States have made possible to have the first analysis proposed by
linguists and anthropologists, who pay attention also to communication and macro -cultural
forms of each country. Among anthropologists contacted by the FSI, there is E.T. Hall, who
introduced a new vision, consequently which aims to give relief to micro -cultural aspects of
society. He is interested in a particular non -verbal com munication of individuals, such as tone
of voice, gestures, posture and proxemics. In other words, he applies linguistic relativity to
non-verbal communication and thus defines a set of concepts and categories essential for
those who want to think about th eories and practices of intercultural communication.

10
Nevertheless, it is only when a University opens courses or when someone writes
surprising books that an academic discipline institutionalizes its birth. Well, in 1966 opened
the first course of intercu ltural communication at the University of Pittsburg and a few years
later two major studies were published: American Cultural Patterns. A Cross -Cultural
Perspective of E.C. Stewart and Intercultural Communication: A Reader by L. Samovar and
R. Porter, surv eys that actually certify the autonomy of the discipline.
The conceptual stages that lead to intercultural communication definition can be
compiled in five important moments. As it turns out, at the beginning intercultural
communication rests on a practical view: to prepare U.S. diplomats in their work. This
approach is still very important to all intercultural communication scholars. A second crucial
moment is the one devoted to the attention given to interpersonal relationships, followed by
the most important study of Hall, his book The Silent Language, which places the basics of
the discipline through an interdisciplinary approach, involving: linguistics, anthropology,
psychology and communication (only later it will be clear the importance of including the
sociological dimension). Another important aspect was the choice of giving relief to non –
verbal communication, knowing that it is through the knowledge of everything that is
communicated outside of words that you can reduce misunderstandings between people from
different cultures. Eventually, it is given a central role to experience: in fact, it is not possible
to acquire practical and effective skills only through theory, on the contrary, it is necessary
also practice. The conceptual stages a nd issues that lead to intercultural communication
definition can be summarized in five key moments . As it turns out, at the beginning
intercultural communication rests on a practical view: to prepare U.S. diplomats in their
work. This approach is still ve ry important to all intercultural communication scholars. A
second decisive moment is the one devoted to the attention given to interpersonal
relationships, followed by the most important study of Hall, his book The Silent Language,
which places the basics of the discipline through an interdisciplinary approach, involving:
linguistics, anthropology, psychology and communication (only later it will be clear the
importance of including the sociological dimension). Another important issue was the
decision of g iving relief to non -verbal communication, recognizing that it is through the
knowledge of everything that is communicated outside of words that you can reduce
misunderstandings between people from different backgrounds. Finally, it is given a central
role to practice: in fact, it is not possible to acquire practical and effective skills only through
theory; on the contrary, exercise is very important as well.

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1.2.1 Intercultural communicati on and language
Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) has been endorsed by many
important educational organizations around the world (ACTFL, 2006, Council of Europe,
2001, UNESCO, 2009) and, given that many people use English to communicate with others
who com e from di fferent cultural backgrounds, it is essential that ICC be integrated in
language teaching .
The Council of Europe’s document : Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (2001 ) is used worldwide , because it recommends the integration of cultural
dimensions in language teaching. It defines that one main intention of interculturality is to
“help language learners interact with speakers of other languages on equal terms, and to be
aware of their own identities and those of their interlocutors” (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey,
2002, p. 7). In essence, when language learners develop intercultural awareness , they can
transmit information eff ectively , while developing a “human relationship with people of other
languages and cultures” (Byram et al. , 2002, p. 7). This implies that anyone who speaks
English and wants to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds needs to
acquire intercultural awareness skills for effective communication.

1.2.1 Intercultural communicati on and Translation Studies

Practicing translators are beginning to be aware of such constraints and of the way
their predecess ors have succeeded in dealing with them. Scholars interested in the study of
translation and intercultural communication are beginning to understand that the study of
translation is much more than mere normative rule -giving designed to ensure the productio n
of the “best” possible translations.

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1.3 The impact of globalization effects on culture and co mmunication

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies
and governments of different nations, a process that is driven by international trade and
investment and aided by technology. This process has effects on the environment, on political
systems, on economic development, on culture and the general welfare of people and
societies from all the corners of the world. The easy access to new technologies, the press, the
internet and many other means of communication al low global interactions, either private or
public, having in mind that they make intercultural communication.
Stager tries to indicate that the term “globalization” applies to a set of social processes
that seem to “transform our present social condition of weakening nationality into one of
globality” (Steger, 2003, p.10). The author adds that globalization is an unequal process,
which means that people from different corners of the world are affected in a distinct way by
this transformation of the cultural and social structures. In order to define and clarify the
phenomenon of globalization, Stager raises some que stions such as: How does globalization
happen? What is pushing globalization? Is it the cause or a combination of factors? Is
globalization a uniform or an uneven process? How does globalization vary from previous
social developments?
There is no doubt tha t globalization intensifies worldwide social relations and
consciousness of the world as a whole and is considered as “fashionable buzzword” which
can be adopted as a “concept referring to people’s growing consciousness of belonging to a
global community” (Steger, 2003, p.11).
One big aspect of globalization is the search for a lingua franca, which can bridge
nations and offer a common set of decoding registers. While teaching everyone on Earth the
same language is an impossible thing to do, teaching a seco nd language in order to create
connections between countries has become compulsory. And this is where translators
interfere and not only. By learning one of the most used languages in the world, you can help
millions of people to understand and find meanin g in the foreign words of other people.
It is absolutely certain that, when we discuss globalization, the first language that
comes to one’s mind is English. In linguistics, the idea of globalization has arrived at the
same time with the economic situatio n, through the fact that it illustrates a phase of the
relationship between the dynamics of the society and different aspects of communication.

13
Thus, the concept of globalization must be observed as a “deliberate acceptance of a common
tool of communicatio n in international economic relationships” (Călărasu, 2003, p.1).
This tool of communication that is necessary for the process of economic
globalization has a series of different features depending on the specialized means of
communication. The chosen lang uage for conversation in international economic
relationships must be limited to utilizing some procedures from the same natural languages.
This is why, only those tools that correspond with the exigencies of compact and precise
communication, can be used in the international economy.
Up until now, this necessity was satisfied by the English language, which has been
accepted circumstantially as a language of globalization. But, there’s a long way from it
being a lingua franca to being accepted a universal reality. In spite of its remarkably growing
number of people who speak it, the English language is used by only one -third of the people.
In some countries, there’s an obvious attempt to maintain the role of other languages (such as
French in some African c ountries). This should be an important moment in linguistics history
because the authorities have to plan and create long -term objectives in what concerns
supporting this language or another in their communities.
Given the dominance of the English language in many fields of contemporary life, it
is plausible to hypothesise that translations from English into German (French, Spanish) no
longer apply a cultural filter to account for local communicative conventions. R ather,
translations from English will reflect anglophone norms. The result of this non -filtering is
then a shift from cross -cultural difference to the similarity in textual norms and text structure,
which may eventually result in related processes of ‘thin king for writing’
A developing process of internationalization and multiculturalism creates ever –
increasing requirements not only on professional, intercultural and social competence but also
on university subjects. In the context of globalization currents , it is very significant to
concentrate on the education of undergraduates on intercultural collaboration and
multiculturalism. Cultivating intercultural competence should be the principal goal of each
university educational process, in which the foreign l anguage teaching has a particular
mission. Elzer and Sciborski (2007, p. 236) show that “our approach and attitude to migrants
depends on their degree of assimilation, integration and interaction.” Migrants, for example,
often complain about language barri ers, especially nowadays with the refugees moving north .

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Intercultural communication involves a skilled segment that can be best learned through a
combination of theoretical knowledge and practice.
Intercultural communication competence of migrants has bee n increasingly studied.
Young Yun Kim has combined both from psychology and communication sciences in her
research. Kim sees intercultural change as a continuous cyclic learning process. Competence
occurs during an intercultural transformation process. Her model of host communication
competence includes three factors which influence this process:
 environmental factors (host receptivity, host conformity pressure)
 predisposition (preparedness for change, ethnic proximity)
 communication (ethnic interpersonal and media communication, or host interpersonal
and media communication).
Competence, as a result of a transformation process, involves psychological health,
functional fitness and a new intercultural identity. Competence, such as knowledge of host
culture language, brings "social currency" which empowers the migrants and makes active
participation in civic society possible.
In the globalizing society, intercultural communication competence is not only needed
abroad. Mobility, either voluntary or non -volunta ry, has the effect of making people needy to
adapt to a new culture, to manage everyday life, to find jobs and to blend successfully in the
local community. Therefore members of both the host culture and the guests (migrants) need
intercultural communicati on competence in order to survive the modern world.

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Chapter 2
2.1 Enhanced intercultural competence: effective communication across
languages and cultures

The rapid pace of change, the globalization of world’s markets, and the continued
roll-out of new technologies mean that people must not only keep their specific job -related
skills up -to-date but also possess the generic competencies that will enable them to adapt to
change.
Romania’s transition from planned to market economy together with country’s
integration into the European Union imposed new demands on population, like the mastery of
new skills that will qualify them for successfully coping with the rapidly changing
environment and pressures of globalisation. The acquisition of knowledge, skills an d
competencies by the population is seen as the duty of the Romanian educational system,
which is in a continuous structural reform, since the fall of the communism in 1989.
Structural changes to the Romanian educational system aim to improve its efficienc y for the
purpose of faster development of Romania through the development of its human capital for
the knowledge economy to be achieved in the future. However, the upgrade of the
educational system needs the design of a strategy for its development that w ill contain a
vision of its long -term objectives and plan for long -term and medium -term actions necessary
for their achievement.
Although the field of linguistics is relatively new, it has witnessed several attempts to
conceptualize what it means to commun icate effectively in a given language. In its early
years, with generative linguistics, the concept of competence was theorized as the knowledge
of language items (e.g., grammar, phonology, morphology, etc.) that refers to what one
knows about language, re garding the ‘native -speaker’ who is part of a monolingual
community as the ideal speaker -hearer of a language (Chomsky, 1965). Reactions to this
purist theory began to burgeon with Hymes (1972) drawing from anthropology to redefine
the concept of competen ce and arguing that social factors play a key role in communication.
For Hymes, knowing how to use a language reflects knowing how to use it appropriately in
different social contexts. Since then, the concept of communicative competence has gained
notable attention and has been conceptualized again over the years, moving away from the
native speaker model.

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Any discussion of communicative competence in recent years recognizes the
importance of the use of the language in social contexts, also referred to as p ragmatics.
Bachman (1990) uses pragmatics as an overarching term that includes sociolinguistic
competence and its related elements: sensitivity to differences in dialect or variety, in
register, naturalness, cultural references, and figurative language. Fo r example, a competent
speaker is one who has the awareness that a language can be used distinctively in certain
geographical locations and/or within different social groups and that certain linguistic
features carry cultural meanings. Although Bachman’s ( 1990) model rightly acknowledges
the sociocultural dimension, it is limited to the appropriate use of the language itself.
The knowledge economy, together with the wider economic and societal trends such
as globalization , changes in family structures, demo graphic change, and the impact of
information society technologies, raise both benefits and challenges for citizens. Among
benefits, we find multiple opportunities in terms of communication, travel and employment,
but taking advantage of these new opportun ities implies an ongoing acquisition of knowledge
and competencies.

17
Different languages
refl ect different thought processes, different cultural values and different

world visions. Good translators know that, and try to negotiate the com –
plex layers of difference that mo nolinguals do not even know exist. As

language learning declines even more rapidly in this country, government

needs to act to reverse the trend, because we need more experts in inter –
cultural understanding, not fewer and you do not train good translators

without solid language learning programmes.
2.2 The cultural shift in Translation Studies to adequately engage intercultural
communication

From ancient time mankind dreamed of a universal language, a language that can
unite people from all over the world. Throughout time, different languages tried to occupy
this position, influenced by the powerful communities of the world. Thus, we have Latin in
Renaissance, French in the XIX century and many of us could agree on English in the
contemporary age. There have even been attempts to create such language (a lingua franca)
and scientists gave birth to an invented language, Esperanto. This language was not meant to
be, as many people disregarded this invention and turned to what they already knew. What is
more, the need for translation rises at the same time with the need for communication.
As the preference for a universal language has changed, as history demonstrated, so
did the way people communicate, through what means and how cul ture influences that. We
are going to spend more time on the last part and discuss it further. The cultural shift or
cultural change is a concept used in policy making that puts an accent on the influence of
cultural resources and community behaviour.
In the current tense global competition, the complexity and uncertainty of the
technological explosion and the continuously developing market created for modern
organizations an extremely turbulent environment for businesses. Theoreticians and the
leaders of o rganizations realised that learning is a decisive factor in developing a powerful

18
evolution, and in obtaining excellence. But learning is limited if the information is not able to
be distributed freely and accurately among regions, nations and generations. In an ever –
changing world, the information transfer depends more and more on an efficient translation,
true to the original meaning and respecting the cultural context of the text from the source
language to the target language.
Today, intercultural und erstanding and competence are more prominent than ever
because they also make it possible for us to discuss the root causes of some of the most
violent social problems of today’s communities in the form of misunderstandings across
cultural, socio -cultural, ethnic and other lines: discrimination, racism, hate speech and
cyberbullying.
It is true that the urgency for learning appears bolder than ever. Education can help
citizens live peacefully together in our various communities. For this reason, we all need to
develop intercultural communication competence. The ability to understand ea ch other across
all types of cultural barriers is not anymore limited to a small of the population, but it has
become a fundamental requirement in order to make our diverse democratic societies work.
In contradistinction to the anterior ages, in postmodern ist society, translators and
interpreters are confronting a more complex process in their work. The translated text passes
through many processes of transformation, changing both the mediatic context and the
expressed language to adapt to the intercultural environment.
The Council of Europe has a long -standing history of interest in this matter going
back to the 1970s. The White Paper on intercultural dialogue adopted in May 2008 identifies
intercultural education as one of the five key areas where the acti on is needed to safeguard
and develop human rights, democracy and the Intercultural competence for all rule of law and
to promote mutual understanding. Intercultural competence is a central precondition for every
individual and since it is not automaticall y acquired, it needs to be developed, learned and
maintained throughout life. (Huber, 2012, p.5)
The reason why a translation is being made is the need for communicating a message
from a cultural sphere that uses a certain code (a language) into another cu ltural sphere that
uses a different code. The translators must find functional equivalence that must keep the
communicational value of the text, sometimes even to the detriment of semantical translation.
This is why he has to take into consideration the so ciological variable with which the

19
participants are confronted, as the participants (readers) objectives and the sociological and
cultural background.
To move further we need to demarcate the study of translation. There are two matters
that need attention here: what we actually mean by translation and what disciplines fall within
the scope of translation studies. The understanding of these issues has been transformed since
Holmes’s experimental, yet fundamental, paper. As far as the former is concerned, cen tral to
the development of translation studies, indeed canonized within its writings, is the well –
known, tripartite definition of translation advanced by the structural linguist Roman
Jakobson:
1. Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of
other signs of the same language. This refers to a rewording or rephrasing in the same
language (most explicitly introduced by phrases such as in other words or that is), and
‘intersemiotic’ to a change of medium, such as the trans lation that occurs when a
composer puts words to music or, even more notably, when the musical sound
completely replaces the verbal code. For Jakobson, “ interlingual ” translation, between
two verbal languages (e.g. Chinese and Arabic, English and Spanish), is “translation
proper ”. Although that may be the most “prototypical ” form of translation (cf.
Halverson 1999), it is still uncertain .
2. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of some other language.
3. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means
of signs of nonverbal sign systems ( Jakobson, 1959/2004)

20
We often forget that learning a language involves so much more than
words, even though we may talk vaguely about ‘body language’. Different
cultures have different physical modes of expression, from the way they
greet one another to the closeness with which they may stand or sit next
to one another. The ease with which Indian men hold hands with one
another in the street is surprising at fi r st sight to Europeans, as is the way
in South India in particular people can uses their neck muscles to move
their heads gently from side to side, something I have never managed
to master. A handshake is a gesture of politeness in some contexts, but is
an intrusion into one’s personal space in another. The Japanese system of
bowing is impenetrable to foreigners, and we all get it wrong at fi rst if we
decide to give bowing a go when in Japan. There is absolutely no universal
system of greeting, just as ther e is no universal system for saying yes or
no – in some cases yes is signifi ed by a nod, in others by a shake of
the head, a gesture that signifi es no right across northern Europe and
the Americas. A translator faced with the phrase in a novel ‘he nodded
assent’ would have to alter the gesture or risk confusing a reader when
translating into a language where the system of assent entails a shake of
the head.
2.3 The intercultural communication competence as a contemporary visa for the
international professional sett ing

Nowadays, employers and employees have to equally address the issues discussed
above and to adapt to the global economic demand of communication. This raises the
question of whether or not big and small corporations offer the background for people fro m
around the world to work together for a common purpose, eliminating cultural constraints and
language barriers.
Let’s take our field of knowledge, namely Translation Studies. Linguists are required
to be the catalysts for the functional implementation of inevitable social change. The same
principles of excellence, in interpreting and translation, are needed in the framework of the
public services as in conference and other fields. The fact that they are not always available is
another matter.

21

22
Chapter 3
APPLIED INTERCULTURA L COMMUNICATION IN R OMANIAN
TOURISM

As demonstrated in the last chapters, intercultural communication is essential in the
economy of the world because it links nations and businesses of all kinds from a part of the
world to another. But perhaps the most relevant industry in which intercultural
communication cannot be absent is tourism. In Romania, a developing country, the concept
of intercultural competence has only has started to play a more important role from the
beginning of this millennium.

23
3.1 Cultural contrasts among tourism practices: a case study

24
3.2 Framing the setting: applied intercultural communication in tourism

3.2.2 Technology in the hospitability industr y
Many years, the idea that robots can be used in the tourism, an industry where the
interaction with the client stands at the roots , may have seemed like science fiction scenery.
With the realization that customer service is a fundamental part of the travel industry came
the need for improvement. With artificial intelligence, the possibilities for improving this
aspect are almost endless, ranging from increased personalisation to tailored
recommendations. That happens because AI captures information from bookings,
transactions, satisfaction surveys and other data. This data, with the support of AI can be
leveraged by hotels for analytics to obtain guest personas and create customized services,
communications and promotional offers that provide specific and fascinating
experiences. For example, hotels in Japan and San Francisco have introduced some services
based entirely marri age by artificial intelligence. In airports, robots have also been introduced
at the security entry to detect any forbidden product. (https://becominghuman.ai/artificial –
intelligence -examples -of-how-hotels -are-changing -adc9a8a0de10 )
In to urism, artificial intelligence is applied in different apps (we are going to discuss
this later ), but also in chatbots that have the ability to offer a n enormous range of answers and
solutions for their problems . One advantage of these is the quick time in which the the answer
is given and the problems are so lved and one disadvantage is that it lacks the sensitivity and
sensibility of a real person. On th e other side, an employee wo rking in tourism might have the
flexibility and intercultural competence needed in an interaction with somebody from another
culture, but a robot can have only general solutions to particular problems.
Fortunately , there are also plenty of phone apps or websites that come in handy for
those who are looking for tried and tested methods of travelling. Some of which include:
 Skyscanner – it helps people compare flights, accommodation and offers car
rental options;
 Kayak – an aggregator app that finds the best offers from various tourist apps;
 Airbnb – an app used more and more, because it offers friendly options of
accommodation in other peo ple's houses. This app is a very good example of how open
we have become and how intercultural competence has influenced tourism . The

25
following passage s of the ir Terms of Service , under the Nondis crimination Policy
illustrate the hypothesis . Their aim is to include “millions of people from virtu ally every
country on the globe ”, thus making the platform “an incredibly diverse community,
drawing together individuals of different cultures, values, and norms .” The website also
states that they “we do not believe that one company can mandate harmony among all
people ” but they do “believe that the Airbnb community can promote empathy and
unders tanding across all cultures .”
(https://www.airbnb.com/ter ms/nondiscrimination_policy )
 Hotel Tonight – an app for those that have not organized their
accommodation and can help them just at the right time with available hotels at good
prices.
 Uber – probably the most popular rideshare app of the world, Uber is a great
example of good business being able to connect drivers and passengers in just a
minute. While being more and more controversial, because of its impact on competition
the app proved to take us one step closer to the global village
 Google Maps – One of the biggest companies of the world in information
technology offers an alternative to GPS for the ordinary person. Google takes a lot of
care of its users’ privacy and safety, especially in constantly changing world. We could
say that Google and in our case Google Maps has put the g in globalization .
 Google Translate – And let us not forget about other Google product that can
make one traveler’s life easier: Translate. The Artificial Intelligence in Google Translate
is now able to translate speech, to offer multiple translations to a word or a phrase and to
learn from the import of the users. Google Translate and other search apps aim to put a n
end to the language barriers of the common user. However, this does not mean that
translator’s job will become extinct due to a growth in automation. It will take robots
ages to match the nuances that humans notice ;
 TripAdvisor – this is another popular app among travelers that offers
complex guides and travel advices. An important advantage is that the information
comes from other travelers and it is not biased.
Virtual Reality and Augmented Re ality are other real-life simulations that have
been discreetly introduced in tourism. Virtual Reality is used in the promotion of exotic
destinations, amazing hotels, adventure parks and others. Augmented Reality, by

26
applying some filters or effects can enhance the clients’ experiences, making information
more accessible and more interactive. Such experience has gained followers in the
tourism based on musical festivals that unite people of all cultures. One big advantage of
the two is that they are easy to use and they no not require knowing a certain language,
everybody can get a hint of the experience without all the fuss.

27
3.3 The role of translation as intercultural communication skill in tourism

28
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http://www.globalization101.org

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https://www.airbnb.com
https://becominghuman.ai/

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Attachaments

Figure 1