Andreea -Monica [602592]

THE USE OF
METAPHORS IN
BUSINESS PRESS
Andreea -Monica
ROGOZ

CONTENTS
•DEFINITION OF METAPHOR
•THE STRUCTURE OF METAPHOR
•THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR
•THE USE OF METAPHORS IN BUSINESS PRESS
ARTICLES, FINANCE AND ECONOMICS

DEFINITION OF METAPHOR
A metaphor isan analogy between twoobjects or ideas .
•The English metaphor hasitsorigins in the16th-century Old French métaphore ,
from theLatin metaphora “carrying over”, Greek metaphorá “transfer”, from
metaphero “tocarry over”, “ totransfer”, and meta “between ” + phero “tobear”, “to
carry .” (Source : Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek -English Lexicon , Ed.
Clarendon Press, 1883, p. 28).
•The traditional view of metaphor characterised thisfigure as a linguistic
phenomenon , used for some artistic andrhetorical purpose , based on a resemblance
between thetwoentities thatare compared andidentified .Themetaphors also
denotes rhetorical figures of speech thatachieve their effects byway of association ,
comparison , andresemblance .

THE STRUCTURE OF METAPHOR
Metaphorical transfer is only based on resemblance or similarity and
instead refers to experience as the main origin of conceptual mappings.
Perceptual, biological, or cultural experiences provide the basis for
conceptual systems. These are the key for source domain selection and
thus, constitute the specific motivation for metaphors.
Cognitive Linguistics is convinced that all metaphors may at least be
partially traced back to a general grounding that is referred to as
experiential basis.

THE STRUCTURE OF METAPHOR
•The most basic grounding is what Cognitive Linguistics calls embodiment, where
conceptions allude to the general organization of the human body or basic bodily
experiences.
•Embod iment affects all human beings, therefore metaphorical transfer based on
embodiment in general guarantees the same positive result avoiding
misunderstanding.
•Studies of embodiment, especially in the broad field of emotions have
determined that in general, metaphorical language used to express emotions such
as “anger” or “happiness” is embodied, but whether cultures conceptualize these
feelings as part of the stomach, the head, the chest, or the liver varies.

THE STRUCTURE OF METAPHOR
•The influence of social communi ties and cultural background on individual
perception as well as of linguistic experiences that may result in diachronic
language changes are not to be underestimated. Although it might be true that
metaphors alluding to bodily experience are in general easier to decode,
metaphorical verbalization is a cognitive as much as a social process.
•Structural similarities that are induced by basic metaphors may also constitute a
motivation for further conceptual mappings. Ontological metaphors are singled
out in particular as belonging to the group of basic metaphors that are suggested
to induce the tracing of further similarities.

THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR
Metaphors are omnipresent in language and
thought.
Metaphors follow certain rules of
production.

THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR
1. From the stylistic to the heuristic:
•The traditional idea of metaphors being only stylistic means of addressing the reader's
imagination has been overcome in linguistics: although metaphors may certainly serve
literature in the form of decorative ornaments or as complex structures to create cohesive
texts, but this is by far not their sole purpose.
•Metaphors are the main tools of conceptualization, which serve a number of different
cognitive functions, the most essential one being their ability to make new or abstract
domains.
•As stylistic means, metaphors are used to draw a coherent picture and express a new and
quite different feeling and meaning to enrich understanding, as heuristic means, they
similarly impart knowledge to foster comprehension.

THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR
2. From the heuristic to the strategic
Children may have problems in understanding metaphorical analogies due to their lack of proper
source domain knowledge, adults may similarly bring partial or inaccurate domain knowledge to their
understanding of metaphor and thus misinterpret the apparently metaphorically knowledge structures.
Likewise , metaphorical structures may fail to structure the abstract target domain in all its complexity.
In fact, understanding of the target domain may be impeded because the chosen source domain lacks
the relevant structures or vocabulary needed.
Using a metaphor to describe a domain can affect the way that a domain is understood . The chosen
source domain does not necessarily provide knowledge structures or vocabulary for all features of the
target domain, mappings are provided exclusively for the aspects of the target that are the focus
desired.

THE FUNCTION OF METAPHOR
•By facilitating, but likewise limiting discourse to the perspective applied,
metaphors can constitute and shape reality. Therefore, the use of metaphor is a
popular means of manipulation, in particular amongst journalists, who prefer to
use metaphors to capture the attention of their audiences.
•Not only journalists, but also politicians, business managers, and other influential
speakers frequently draw on metaphors .
•For example, managers presenting company's accounts to shareholders at the
annual general meeting are well -advised to choose the right metaphors to put a
positive 'spin' on company finances and activity; after all, shareholders must be
convinced that the company is on the right track.

THE USE OF METAPHORS IN BUSINESS PRESS
ARTICLES, FINANCE AND ECONOMICS
Metaphors represent an important and notable characteristic of current business and financial
journalism. Used in this context, they are no longer perceived as pertaining exclusively to
literature but rather as vehicles providing new insights into specialist business related terms.
English has rapidly become the lingua franca of the business environment. In consequence, all
those performing in this environment: employers, employees, business partners worldwide, etc
are fully aware of the need for learning English. Nevertheless this phenomenon has turned into
an issue of great importance to language teachers as well.
Learners' needs vary but one of the common needs they all share is that of acquiring vocabulary
that is common core in specialist business texts. In order to enable them to acquire this specialist
lexis teachers need to expose students to all kind of specialist business texts or to a specialist
business context.

Metaphors used in business press articles –
The Economist:
•The concept of audience seems to be of paramount importance in the choice of
language used in a business context. Business press articles have different audiences
from textbooks. Therefore, besides being informative, the journalist needs to be
entertaining as well, in an attempt to make the articles more lively and interesting.
•One way of achieving this is by making use of metaphors. Charteris -Black thinks
that metaphor is in fact an essential characteristic of technical discourse and plays a
key role in making it easier to understand: “Meanings may be realized by word
choice that differs what is in some sense typical or unmarked, and anything
approaching technical language for example, tends to become noticeably more
complex if one simplifies it by removing the metaphor .” (Source : Charteris -Black ,
Jonathan, Metaphor and vocabulary teaching in ESP economics in English for
Specific Purposes ,2000, pp.149 -165).

Metaphors used in business press articles –
The Economist:
•In 2000 he carried out a comparative language analysis of The Economist
magazine and the economist section of the Bank of English corpus. The results
suggested that the metaphoric lexis in The Economist was higher in frequency
than in the general magazines. In this case, business English learners are dealing
with more specific types of metaphors as part of their 'technical' register.
•The articles from The Economist offer a register of economic discourse that is
rather specialised but at the same time fairly popular and often argumentative:
"The Economist believes in plain language. The use of metaphors in this type of
journalistic discourse serves many different purposes and it may sometimes offer
a greater linguistic variety than would be expected from the use of metaphors in
more technical economic registers.

Metaphors used in business press articles –
The Economist:
•According to Boers, typical metaphorical themes in economics are:
MECHANISMS and MACHINES, ANIMALS, PLANTS and GARDENING,
HEALTH and FITNESS, FIGHTING and WARFARE, SHIPS and SAILING,
and SPORTS. Some of the themes mentioned by Boers have been found in the
business press articles of The Economist magazine.
•Next , I am going to provide some examples that illustrate these themes, but these
are just some of the many examples of metaphors we came across when reading
The Economist . (Source: Frank, Boers, Enhancing Metaphors Awareness in
Specialised Reading in English for Specific Purposes , volume 19, issue 2, 2000 ,
pp. 137 -147).

EXAMPLES of METAPHORS
related to the ideas of health and fitness or the lack of
them
•“ He says the recent decline in energy prices is a “symptom of demand
destruction” that has dire implications for overall profitability .”
•“… the list of troubled firms has now extended far beyond the house builders
and building -suppliers firms that were the first casualties of the subprime –
mortgage crisis …”
•“This relative health of the economy was largely due to high energy prices… “
•“The banking sector, too, now looks much healthier .”

ONE PARTICULAR EXAMPLE
•“Apart from carmakers and other manufacturers, the list of those laying people off
now includes Pepsi bottlers, law firms, retailers, media companies, chemicals
producers and even technology firms. All are desperately seeking a cure. And the
most attractive medicine on offer looks like cash .”
•In this example mentioned it is clear that companies are desperately trying to find a
solution to their problems. Instead, by using the metaphors in bold, it induces the
idea that companies have “health” -financial problems and the only “cure” –
solution to their problem would be the “most attractive medicine” -in this case,
cash. (Source: Lakoff , G. & M. Turner, Metaphors we live by. Chicago: Chicago
University Press, 1980, p. 93).

EXAMPLES of METAPHORS
related to the idea that economy is a machine or
mechanism:
•“China still has one advantage over other countries. If necessary, the state –
controlled banking system can be directed to increase lending to firms.
That would raise long -term concerns about the future quality of bank's
assets, but in the short term it would help to keep the economy ticking.
The importance of this, says Mr. Wang, is that fiscal stimulus can
jumpstart the economy, bank lending is the fuel needed to keep it going .”
•In this case, in order to keep the economy “ticking” -functioning, it is
necessary to come up with the right solution –“fuel”, which here refers to
bank lending.

EXAMPLES of METAPHORS
refering to the idea of water or liquidity, as well as
ships and sailing
•“Banks have spent the past year shoring up their balance sheets but, after some
big losses, investors have lost their appetite for more share issues.”
•“Profits have also been buoyed up by strong demand from overseas, especially
emerging markets.”
•“… he expects America's GDP to shrink over the coming year …”
•“Lehman's shares have sunk so low that its market value of $5 billion now
languishes some way below what it hopes to get from Neuberger Berman .”
•“With almost every investment to date under water, contributions have been
drying up .”

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS…
•As proven by the examples provided above, business press articles offer a
rich metaphorical material for study. Furthermore, they facilitate and
enhance understanding by simplifying what would otherwise be
sometimes too complex for learners to understand.
•Metaphors also have a useful function in teaching by helping to raise
learners’ awareness of specialist business vocabulary and to improve
learners’ specialized reading . (Source: Cameron , L. & G. Low, Metaphor
in Language Teaching 32,1999 ,pp. 77 -96.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1.Cameron, L. & G. Low, Metaphor in Language Teaching 32, 1999
2. Charteris -Black, Jonathan, Metaphor and vocabulary teaching in ESP
economics in English for Specific Purposes ,2000.
3. Frank, Boers, Enhancing Metaphors Awareness in Specialised Reading in
English for Specific Purposes , volume 19, issue 2, 2000
4.Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek -English Lexicon , Ed. Clarendon
Press, 1883
5.Lakoff , G. & M. Turner, Metaphors we live by. Chicago: Chicago University
Press, 1980