Humanitarian Intervention and Peace Building [601525]

Humanitarian Intervention and Peace Building
Exam no. 423227
University of Southern Denmark
Assigner : Sten Rynning
15.02.2016

1

Among the issues that could strengthen the UN in regards to humanitarian intervention is
a reinforced political framework –via the reform of the United Nations Security Council and
more robust political mandates. Discuss the relevance of this political fra mework for
understanding the case of Rwanda, Libya and Iraq . Discuss also the plausibility of the
argument that a different political framework would have produced a different
intervention outcome.
On 14 January 20 11, its starts protest in Libya in Bayda -city.The protesters chashed with the
police force after they try to attack government offices from the town. Second day start all
around the Lybia a huge protest .The Libya Government send elite troops in attempts to
stifle the protests. Until 20 February the protests have spread to Tripoli. As a result the
Gaddafi regime will use military equipment that situation will lead to thousands of
victims,which scanda lized the international comunity. Whole the international comunity
perceived actions of bloody repression carried out by the Gaddafi regime as a particula ry
serious threat against Libyan citizens and flagrant violation of Human Rights. In the terms of
urgency , it was found that as they approached the Cairo protest, represion became
increasingly atrocious, which required immediate end to the attack against civilian s. The size
of the scale events suprised the international community which no longer faced a similar
situation against civilians and the d evelop of the Libya crisis could not be anticipated. As a
consequence of the scale of this crisis, the Human Rights Council through Resolution
A/HRC/RES/S -15/1 from 25 February condemning the violence taking pl ace in Lybia and calls
for sending an independent commission of inquiry to investigate all violations of
international law of human rights. In the same day, the African Union and the General
Secretary of Organization of Islamic Conference condemn human righ ts violations and
Interna tional Humanitarian Law in Libya . On 26 February Security Council of UN will adopt
Resolution 1970, vote unanimously .The resolution its legally founded on art. 41 from UN
Charter. The Resolution 1970 do not allow the right to use the force, that ’ s why was in
unanimously vote. But because in t he begining of March were reported repeated attacks of
forces loyal to Gaddafi using helicopters and combat aircraft against of civilians , but also

Exam no.423227 2

the The World Healthy Organization( WHO) r eported more then 2000 victims they died
becau se of bloody repression. On 17 March 2011 the Security Council of UN adopted a new
Resolution 1973 with 10 votes pro and 5 against . Russia Fe deration, Brasil, India, China and
Germany vote against , France, England and with US support call themselves the leader of
military action. The resolution 1973 allowed the right for Member st ates to take all the
mandatory -necessary measures to protect the civilians. We need to remark that the
German Chancellor Angela Merkel higlight that the Germany is not neutral, she understand
the scop of the Resolution 1973 but w ill not involve in the military intervention. Also China
expressed regret for the bombi ng of International Coalition in Libya .China always opposed
the use of force in International relations. But in fact what could be done better in the order
to succed peace building or intervention for humanitarian reason when even the muslim
leaders have n ot taken responsabi lity for bringing peace in Libya , that fact paves the way f or
Western to intervene. Of course there are few critics from the muslim leaders whih argue
that Crisis from Lybia creates a precedent in that its open the way for foregn interf erence in
each Arab country. In the evening of 21 March the Arab League leader criticized the
International coalition bombing, adding that the Coalition do not respect the scop, namely
the creating of a restriction fly zone over the Libya . Under legal aspe ct the terrestrial
attacks they are cover by the Resolution text 1973 paragraph 2, according with that it was
allowed to bombing the ground but the presence of foreign military force on the territory of
Lybia was striclty forbidden. Important to mentioned that, only in 27 March the NATO deiced
to take the responsability on the ent ire military operations in Libya . If we should to present
the Operation Unified Protector under NATO control I can say that. NATO take the lead of
the military mission in Lybia on 31 March 2011 based on the Resolution of SC of UN 1970
and 1973 .The military mission h as 3 elements :
1. Arms embargo ,starts 23 March 2011
2. No-fly zone , start in 25 March 2011
3. Action to protect the civilians against of the attack of the military force loyal to Gaddafi,
begin in 31 March 2011.
Under this military mission a lot of vessels were controlled , many lives were saved, they
were given humanitarian assistance. But of course all this cost over 5,4 mi l.euro. Operation
Unified Protector was closed on and fulfilling all three goals on 31 October 2011 .
The events from 2011 was a major, who scored in my opinion that will mark Libya for many
years on the future. If we should to analyze decrea se of BIP in the conflicts per iode from 90
MLd in 2010 to 35 Mld. in 2011 that shows the country was in a really strong economic crisis.
But once with the embargo ends , the libian states start to exports oil again and that shows

Exam no. 423227 3

the economy start to recover. But the question its how the citizen of this country survived
during the army conflict and after, how it is the social and political situation in Lybia. The
demoratic process has result, what about the Inst itution of the States, they are fully trust? If
we were to analyze the situation in terms of political, Lybia is far from being a stable political
system. Arend Lijphart in [Constitutio nal Design for Divide Societies ″ Journal of Democracy
2004 ″ (15/2) page 96/109 ], argue that in the order for a society ″deep ethnic and other
clavages ″ page 96[Lijphart ] to became democratic it is need to have 2 elements to can
build up a democratic regime, this are power sharing and group autonomy [Lijphart 2004 :
97]. But this theory its hard to appl y under this condition in Libya because of the lack of a
strong democratic traditions and corraborated with tribal traditions make the political life
unpredictibal and unstable.
In the other hand , R. Paris ″At War’s End: Building Peace After Conflict (Cambridge
UP,2004), chap.10 (32 pp) ″ .Paris argue with other words that ″ in the order to build a
country which just come out from the war/ military conflicts it is mandatory the new
society to sta rt creat and lay the fondation for Institutionalization and after that as a
second ste pt in Liberalizati on of society, Institutionalization Before Libera lization″ [ Paris
2004: 188 -189].
According with Paris theory the Institution are the democracy tool for educating people,
promoting a civil society based on equality for all regardless of ethnicity, religion or gender.
But, in Liby a the institutionalization proce ss of the State its in the begin ning and slow.
Making the transition to the democratic structure its need time and financial resources. Even
the army must to be rebuild , because the old one were loyal to Gaddafi and that process its
takes effort to creat Institution whe re the population to have trust again . That key s elements
which Paris noted to draw a electoral system , system which will promote good society ,
where the speech of hate to not emerge like in Rwanda genocide (where the radio
encourage of killing Tutsi) , on 6 April 1994, the term designates genocide in Rwanda, about
800-1 million ethnic Tut si and moderate Hutu were massacre. These crimes committed in a
periode of 100 days ( 6 April –mid-July 1994) by two militia, Interahamwe and
Impuzamugambi after the uprising Hutu population against the Tutsi ethnic group.
Genocide was able to happen becau se of the passivity of the international comunity, and
because ″ the international community and its Western leaders failed to act in time ″ , as
Brian Urquhart argue in ″ SHAMEFUL NEGLET ″ The New York Review of Bo oks, April 25,
2002 , although at that time was stationed in Rwanda a peace mission ( UNAMIR), under the
aegis of the UN.The massacre of Tutsis was unleashed after 6 April 1994, the plane in which
he was the President of Rwan da at that time, Juvanel Habyarimana and the President of

Exam no.423227 4
Burundi’ s, both ethnic Hutu, was crash in unexplained circumstances near the capital
Kigali. Rwanda it’s a small country in central Africa with surface similar with Belgium .
Rwanda’s population of about 11 million, making it the state with the largest African
population density. The population is composed of ethnic Hutu, Tutsi and Twa. Ethnic Hutu
most numerous are they representing approximately 84 percent of the population ,
remaining 15 percent Tutsi and 1 percent Twa population. Although they speak the same
language, share the same eart h and follow the same tradition , but the ethnic conflicts
between Hutu and Tutsi is nothing new. There have been always disagreements between
the majority Hutu a nd Tutsi in the colonial period. Tutsi ethnicity was ruling class, kings and
rulers from ethnic group, while Hutu were farmers. Belgian colonists felt Tutsi ethnic group
as superior to the other two groups giving them better jobs and provide them with more
advanced education . Action of 1935 by Belgian authorities introduced identity cards that
classified it population Hutu, Tutsi and Twa has only served to fuel the existing ethnic
conflict. Rwanda appears on the UN agenda sooner than the start genocide, called by some
authors as one of the biggest failures of humanity. The first intervention of UN is observed
through the R esolution 812 on 12 March 1993 , issued 3 days after termination, on 9 March
milit ary ac tions between RPF and RFG . This first resolution of the SC calls on the parties to
respect / to stop the cease -fire and that represents a starting point in establishing UNOMUR
– Observation Mission to the UN in Uganda and Rwanda, which have to monitor the border
between these two countries to take registered the arms transfer and military detachments
by the RPF and Rwanda .UNOMUR will officially establish through the Resolution 846 from
22 June 1993 the SC UN it has appointed Dr. Abdul Hamid Kabi ( Sierra Leone) as a political
officer of the mission. Later in R wanda were sent three reconnaissance missions before
sending peacekeeping mission. Reconnaissance missions, especially the third, had to
establish all the details that would help establish the peacekeeping mission. They had
analyzed the military, political , humanitarian and administrative aspects of an eventual
peacekeeping mission. Members of the Operations Division of the Land ( UN agency in
administration and logistics) require to examine communications, infrastructure, personnel,
logistics and local tr ansportation and all aspects of administrative support that mission will
need. On 5 October 1993, after a the breach of several deadlines set by the Agreement in
Arusha for the establishment of the peacekeeping mission, the UN SC decide, by the
Resolution 872, sending a peacekeeping mission forces in Rwanda to ensure the agreement
from Arusha will be respected . There it is yet another Resolution 891 from 20 December
1993, which extends the mandate of UNOMUR and specifies that its integration into
UNAMIR by Resolution 872 of the SC is administrative and does not affect the mandate of
UNOMUR established by Resolution 846 of 22 June 1993. Ironically or not, on 5 April 1994, a
day before the resumption of the war and the outbreak of genocide, the SC of UN adopte d a
resoluti on welcoming the observance of the cease –fire in spite of the difficulties

Exam no. 423227 5
encountered in the implementation of the Agreement on Arusha. An important provision of
this Resolution is the extension of UNAMIR ’S mandate until 29 July 1994. Remeo Dallaire .
blamed the SC of UN and international community condemns absolute indifference and the
provisions of Resolution 912 of 21 April 1994 under which UNAMIR troops are reduce from
2500 to 270, following the proposal of the UN SG expressed in article 15 -18 of its Special
Report of 20 April 1994 on the situation in Rwanda. It should be noted that in this period
Rwanda was part of the SC, its representative being known as a member and suppo rter of
government forces from which were also extremists genocide, which would favored the
permanent postponement of decisions on Rwanda under needs of the party to the conflict.
After nearly a month of the bombardments continue on command base UNAMIR, finally SC
of UN ado pted resolution 918 on May 1994 , which increased the number of UNAMIR to
5, 000 military troops . However, UNAMIR’S mandate was changed from provis ions of
chapter 6 principle to chapter 7 of the UN Charter. That imposes an embargo banning all
states from selling or supplying warring parties with weapons, ammunition, military vehicle,
military equipment and paramilitary . The resolution gives the possibility of using force
UNAMIR troops when the mission were at risk or were attacked . Security C ouncil (SC)
decision was enthusiastically received by the command of UNAMIR, but in the same time,
Dallaire describe″ to much, too late″. Resolution 925 of 8 June 1994 recognize UNAMIR
again the capacity/ability to take action in self -defense, to use fo rce if necessary against
individuals , groups or locations that threaten the population belonging to the UN and
humanitarian organization. To approve the deployment of several other battalions of troops
to balance the country ’s internal situation. The n ovelty that comes with resolution 925
(1994) is the first use of the terms Genocide to characterize the situation from Rwanda (
note the resolution 912 from 1994 formulated vaguely large –scale violence that killed
thousand innocent civilian), given that, since January 1994 launched warning that prepare
such scenario. On 20 June 1994, its adopted Resolution 928 of the Security Council extend
the mandate of UNOMUR which until 21 September 1994 for the continuation Uganda –
Rwanda border monitoring in support of the embargo imposed by the paragraph 13 of
resolution 918 (1994). 1 July 1994 comes Resolution 935 which establish a Commission of
Experts mandated to investigate all cases of violation of international humanitarian law,
including those set by the Conv ention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. In the early November the SC UN adopted a Resolution 955 of 8 November 1994
establishes the creation of the International Criminal Tribunal for such crimes. Rwanda,
which is attached in Annex TPIR Statute . Resolution 956 of 30 November 1994 will
extended U NAMIR activity to June 9, 1995 , to monitor the process of pacification of the
country and to secure the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ( TPIR/ICTR) staff,
especially prosecutors. Along with the resolutions of the SC UN , the UN has been accused
rightly been evasive and slow reaction with the Genocide from Rwanda, which led to

Exam no 423227 6
numerous studies, reports, committees trying to gather together what happen there and
then to determine who its quilt of the act of abandonment . Rwanda genocide has thrilled
the world by the massacre of almost 1 million people. Could that genocide happened
because the international community’s inaction, although at that time was sanctioned in
Rwanda a peace mission UNAMIR, under the aegis of the UN. Of course the main fault of this
genocide its belong to the Hutu extremists, but cannot be igno re the la ck of intervention of
UN and US to stop de crimes. It is shame that the great powers, by bodies established in
order to maintain world peace, not doing their duty in the best way. Critics and human rights
activists are wondering what it’s differenc e between slaughter of more than 800.000 people
in Rwanda and the overthrow of the Gaddafi regime: What it’s the difference between
Rwanda genoc ide and the genocide from Sudan ? What difference Rwanda genocide and the
Burmese or other places in the world? The human rights, also criticizes elections UN
safeguarding or ignoring human rig hts violation, getting armed involved and more directly in
countries of various economic interests and financial at the stage of dialogue and empty
words if other countries s eemingly ″ unimportant″ . But as I s aid Libya conflict did was a
sectarian one like Rwanda , so in fac t this aspects should to lead for a easy and succesfull
Institutionalization, but even like this the Liby a State its a state located in a deep crisis,
whose multiple vulnerabilities which will lead to failed as a state. With a defense system still
forming , with weak democratic institution, with an unstable domestic political environment
and wihtout democratic traditions, with an economy that functional under state control
which now its under transitional per iode to the free market economy , with a midle cla ss
almost inexistent , the Libyan state without international support can go into a situation of
instability and colaps. But if wee need to compare the Libya cases for exemple with East
Timor, where the UN took over for many years accros to hole country and leading the East
Timor and implementing a number of Institution after western model because East Timor
have no natural resources , here in Liby a what might save the situation it is the oil resou rces
which can provide economic incomes to finance the country to implements reforms. Libya ’s
strategic position in the area of strategic interest of EU, significant hydrocarbon resources
should generate an attitude of responsability towards Libya and pro cess of
Institutionalizastion as a first stage of reconstruction of society.But if we look overall over
the EU involvement in the begining of Libya crisis, we can notice that a EU has a low profile
in solving human crisis , that why was necessary the cont rol over the Libya to be took over
by NATO. Of course, after the end of the military conflict we have expect to assist in
launching programs for reconstraction from EU or its important and strong members but
didn’t happen. I consider primarily institutiona l reconstruction as Paris argue, assistance for
the country in this transitional process from the state economy to a free market. I will dare
to say that the western players has the responsability for the reconstruction of Libya, from
the manegement crisis point of view the international comunity stopped halfway without
continuous consistency programs for reconstruction designed to assist and help the Libyan

Exam no 423227 7

state in that crisis. As we know Rwanda , Bosnia and East Timor have not been fixed in the
military defeat/mission of a e nemy its more a situation where the humanitarian intervetion
has a goa l to solve a humanitarian crisis, but we can not say the same about the
intervention in Iraq. At 20 March 2003 began the coal ition invasio n in Irak, which blatantly
viola te international law and which do not have the approval of the UNSC . Occupation of
Iraq led by theUS Army with the support from United Kingdome , Poland and in a less
extend other countries, official attempts t o replace the system imposed by Sadam Hussein
with a democratic system ( still supervised by the US) and to rebuild civilian infrastructura
devastated by the occupation forces during the 2003 inv asion of Irak . To organize
reconstruction of Irak, there was c reated on Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian
Assistance leaded by general of army Jay Garner from April -May 2003 and after this was
replaced by the civilian Paul Bremer, which has already start to divide /share the power
authority with a sort of I rakian Government Council temporarily. A emergency problem
which the american force must to deal with it was the instability or the inexistence sources
of drinking water, gas and electricity , destroyed by the Americans during the
invasion. Bremer announced that the sovereignity and full control of the Irak government will
be conferred on 30 June 2004. In practice, this government is stronlgy limited because of
some important leaders sciiti, lack of control over the activities of foreign troops and
terrorist attaks by the Iraqi resistance. Once again we thing at what Paris [2004: 187 ] said ″
constructing a framework of effective institutions prior to promoting political or economic
competition ″will help to build up a soci ety until government will become more stabil and
logical, and till the situation are created to make the transitional proces s to the de mocracy
much smother, but in Iraq didn ’t work. During the invasion, the US military decide to
dissolving the military security forces , accusing them of corruption and been under control
of Saddam Hussein ’s faithful people . After short time they were forced to recruit a large
number of effective among those considered the most corrupt as can control the situation in
the big Sunni cities. That things together with the disatrous situation caused by years of
blockade and invasion, which destroyed the infrastructured of t he country have created
some difficulties in keeping the control in ma jor big cities by the Americans, for th ose were
difficult to control the oil area. To control loading of organized resistance and unsatisfied
attitude of population which start to increa se, the US forces began training the police and
paramilitary force accros de country and they have try to created a new center for a new
army around of kurds and older members of the Sadam Husein army . According with Eduard
Newman , Roland Paris and Oliver P.Richmond one of the main goal of peacekeeping
mission were to focus in the security, by ″ supporting a ceasefire and peace proces, as
appropriate, demobilization and disarmament of former combatants , and their re –
integration into society , collecting a nd distroying wepons and de -mining , achieving

Exam no. 423227 8
security ″ [New Perspective on Liberal peacebuilding , edited by Edward Newman, Roland
Paris and Oliver P. Richmond , United Nation Univers ity Press, Tokyo -New York -Paris, 2009,
ISBN 978 -92-808-1174 -2], despite of this goals , Ir ak will have a lack of security and the
coalition forces will need to re-think they are strategy. Prior to the invasion Bush promised a
quick transition of power by democratic government, starting by the Iraqian constitution. He
also stressed that the Iraqi democratic government will be established as soon as posible. In
November 2003, US officials announced his plan collocation o f political authorithy in Iraq .
Presented plans for maintaining US military authorities, creates a new iraqien army.
Coalition Provisional Authority has divided Iraq after certain administrative issues , security
in 3 areas: an area of n orthern Mosul -Kirkuk region, an central region Bagdad -Tikrit and
south area Basora -Nasiriya . The north and central part were under US control and south
was uder polish and UK. Army. The coalition lead by G.W.Bush founds no one alleged
weapon of mass destr uction, weapons that were a pretext for invanding Iraq. This caused a
battle of credibility between Tony Blair and the BBC , the first one losing a lot credibility in
the front of population and BBC. Group of Australian interests group demanded the
resigna tion of Tony Blai r and in the terms of G.W.Bush. T his one argues , he act under CIA
advice and information, even if the leader of CIA he denied the existence of such afirmation
like in Iraq were weapon of mass destruction, argue G.W.Bush tellings lies in o ther words.
As a consequence the US President G.B.Bush created a commission designed to investigate
wheter information from CIA justified the intervention in Iraq. But that is not the only
unclear situation from Iraq war , a lot of discovery torture were made over the iraqien
prison ier by the US army but not only , in the priso n like in Abu -Ghraib and probably in other
prisons were found out that too, and this situation lead to unrespect and untrust felling in
the coalition forces. Increases outrage and rejection by the inhabitants of the invanders
increasingly , more over the international media publication showed record with images that
highlight torture . The creation of civilian government in Iraq is complicated because of
religious differences between majority Shiite and S unni class which have the power, in
addition in northern Iraq, Kurds have had de facto independence for 1 2 years and they were
under the protection of air exclusion zone and require legal autonomy o f the territory where
they live.
On 16 May, 2003 US authorities abandoned the plan to grant civil authorities elected in Iraq
Government( as they have done in Afga nistan ) and presented a resolution which provided
the right to US and UK to have the power to apply economic sanction to the Iraq, allowing
allied countries to exploit oil resources in exchange of reconstruction of Iraq.
On 22 May 2003 The Security Counc il of UN., voted 14 -0 in favor of the resolution presented
to empowering governments of the countries which help to reconstruct the Iraq to use the
oil for them in speciale US and UK. The resolution 1483 ended 13 years of economic

Exam no. 423227 9
sanctions imposed after I raq ’ invasion of Kuwait initial one in 1990. The SG of UN at that
time, Kofi Annan , send a special representat to work with the American and Brithish
administrators in reconstruction , humanitarian help. The resolution created a new Program
Founds for dev elopment of Iraq , founds which come from the management of oil
exploitation. This founds will be used by US, UK and internati onal financial institution to
building up the country. The resolution allowed once in the year the program ″ oil″ to be
reviewed , a Germany, France and Siria asked. Despite of that in Iraq the coalition forces
faced opposed right from the begining from the shiite population, were many anti -americans
protests , Sayed Mahomed Baqir al –Hakim, after he turn back from a long exile (13 years) he
claim the american soldiers can not scare us, and Iraq wants to keep his own suveranity and
the coalition forces must leave.
All this three cases, they have they ar own particularities, Libya and Iraq were military
intervention to defeat a political regime an enemy , not being humanitarian , trying to solve a
huma nitarian crises as the Rwanda intervention was. The Iraq intervention I can say have a
great signifianc e to the outcome, the U N mandated scope has been taken in one direction
but has lead to different outcomes .
Bibliography:
1. Arend Lijphart : ″Constitutional Design for Divided Societies ″, Journal of Democracy,
Volume 15, Number 2, April 2004, pp 96 -109.
2. Roland Paris, At War ’s end: Building Peace After Conflict ( Cambridge UP, 2004),
chap10( 32 pp).
3. Paul D. Williams and Alexander J. Bellamy, ″ Principle, Politics and Prudence : Libya,
the Responsability to protect and the use of Military Force, ″ Global Governance 2012
(18), 273 -297 pp.
4. ″ New perspectives on liberal peacebuilding ″ edited by Eduard Newman, Roland Paris
and Oliver P.Richmond, United Nation University Press, Tokyo -New York -Paris, 2009,
ISBN 978 -92-808-1174 -2.
5. Brian Urquhart, ″ Shameful Neglect ″, The New York of Books, April 25, 2002.
6. Michael Gordon and Bernard Trainor, Cobra II ( New York: Vintange, 2007) chapter 8
(30 pp).

7. Janice Gross Stein, Intimidat ion and Compulsion in Gulf , 1990 -1991, in ″International
Security ″, Center for Science and International Affairs – Havard University, vol.17,
no.2.

Web pages:
www.nato.int ; www.un.org . ; www.cia.gov .