Particularitatile Extra Lingvistice Si Lingvistice de Traducere a Retetelor Engleze In Limba Rusa

Master Thesis

Extra-linguistic and Linguistic Peculiarities of Translation of English Recipes into Russian

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Teza de master

Particularitățile extra-lingvistice și lingvistice de traducere a rețetelor engleze în limba rusă

INTRODUCTION

Food has always been a topic of fascination for the general public. This may be evidenced by the huge numbers of published cookbooks as well as the centrality of food in many marvelous works of literature. However, the interest given to food and nearly everything related to it has intensified greatly over recent years. “Indeed, a curious and pervasive interest in everything related to food, food preparation, food representation, recipe books, culinary culture, nourishment etc. has emerged in contemporary life within the last decades” [7, p. 12].

The attention given to food in various disciplines corresponds to this interest. Food has become the subject of extensive scholarship in various disciplines, these disciplines ranging from social studies, ethnographic studies, dietitian and medical studies, psychological studies, literary and cultural studies, media studies and many more. However, the attention devoted to this topic in the field of linguistics has been incomparably smaller.

Though recipes and cookbooks have been a well-established part of literary publishing for several centuries, there has been a large boom in recipe production in the last few decades. This boom has resulted in the fact that recipes are no longer confined exclusively to cookery books, but are now also a common feature of television programmes, the internet, newspapers, magazines, films and novels [13, p. 2].

“Television offers more than 40 hours of food programming a week, and over the last five years the number of magazines about food and cooking doubled, their circulation tripled and readership quadrupled” [13, p. 13]. It is therefore not too surprising that “cookbooks top the non-fiction best-seller lists all the year round” [13, p. 14]. And that the chefs and writers of these books have become famous, sometimes world famous celebrities with their own cookery programmes.

Actuality. This diploma thesis reflects the increased interest in cookbooks and recipes. That is why we consider that the chosen subject is very actual, however it is not studied sufficiently from the linguistic point of view.

Thus the main goal of the thesis is to determine the extra-linguistic peculiarities of translation of English recipes into Russian.

In the thesis we venture to take a closer look at this topic from a linguistic point of view, the object of study being the language of receipts and cookery texts as used in three cookery books by three British chefs and cookery book authors: Nigella Lawson, Jamie Oliver and Gavin Ramsay. The general number of analyzed recipes is 250.

In order to achieve our aim we have to solve the following objectives of our thesis:

to determine the main features of text as a linguistic notion;

to discuss the notion of textuality as a linguistic attribute;

to distinguish main types of text;

to perform an analytic survey of literature on the problem of the cookery recipe as a text type;

to define the peculiarities of the cookery recipe from linguistic point of view;

to analyze the structure and vocabulary of the cookery recipe;

to establish the features of peculiarities of translation of English recipes into Russian.

The theoretical value of this diploma thesis is based on idea that it represents another contribution to the issue of specialized language in modern English linguistics. When performing the research, it gave us the possibility to establish the main features of English cookery recipe as a text type and to settle different aspects that are used in the process of the composing them.

The practical value of the work is based on the idea that this research due to its linguistic characteristics can be used in the field of specialized translation and the composition of culinary dictionary.

Among the methods of research used in the thesis one has to mention:

componential analysis – an analysis of the structure of a word's meaning;

contextual analysis –  an analysis of the environment in which the lexemes operate;

speech pattern method – analysis of the morphological categories of lexemes;

quantative method to perform statistical analysis of the obtained data.

Structure of the work. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and annexes.

Introduction sets the actuality, general goal of the research, objectives, practical value, and outlines the structure of the present paper.

Chapter I “Text as a Linguistic Phenomenon” provides the theoretical preliminaries of the research. These preliminaries include the identification of the characteristic features of text as textuality, inertextuality, hypertextuality and text typology.

Chapter II “The Culinary Recipe as a Text Type” centers upon the definition of recipe as a piece of written text from the linguistic point of view, an explanation of methodology and the definition of situational characteristics pertaining to the recipes under analysis. It provides with the information about grammatical and lexico-semantic peculiarities of cookery recipes as well as development of the culinary receipt during the centuries.

Chapter III “Analytic Description of English Culinary Recipe”, being a practical one, presents the main analysis of the data on three main levels: the level of grammar, vocabulary level and etymological level. This chapter discusses some linguistic features of the register of recipes, concentrating on the investigation of the lexical peculiarities pertaining to the most frequent word categories i.e. nouns, adjectives and verbs. The features characteristics of the language of recipes on the syntactic level are analyzed on the samples of many different recipes.

In Conclusion we specify the results of our research stating the most important ideas of theoretical and practical order.

Bibliography includes the list of literature which served as a theoretical basis for our research. The number of sources used is 47 units, being in different languages as well as on-line sources.

Annexes present diverse types of additional visual information: tables and examples.

Annex 1 includes table with the abbreviations and figures on occurrences verbs, nouns, adjectives and etc.

Annex 2 gives examples of English culinary receipts with their translation.

CHAPTER text as a linguistic phenomenon

I.1. The Notion of Text

The word “text” has its origins in Quintilian's book on speeches, with the statement that "after you have chosen your words, they must be weaved together into a fine and delicate fabric, with the Latin for fabric being textum” [4, p. 10].

The term “text” has many complex and intricate meanings. Philosophers have labeled it a non-definable concept. Its original use refers simply to a body of writing. The classical concept of text concerns only the written and linguistic domains, where text is regarded as an autonomous stable, coherent object with a determinate identity, involving two components: The signifier, i.e. words which carry the meaning; and the signified, i.e. the fixed meaning communicated by the text [38, p. 27].

Language is not representational, and words are just labels imposed on objects which exist ‘out there’ in the world. Ferdinand de Saussure and the Structuralists believed that we use language to name, label and compartmentalize the world, imposing form on nature and structuring the way we perceive the world: “It is only through functional structures that we are in any sense aware of reality” [38, p. 49].

Text can be anything which conveys meaning through the use of signs. This revelation means that the realm of text can be extended from the form of written discourse to that of any object, regardless of whether it is aesthetic, written or spoken. ‘Text’ refers to anything which is capable of being read or interpreted. Texts are the products of cultural codes, a coherent complex of signs from one or many sign systems, therefore a ballet or play is a text. According to Mikhail Bakhtin, texts are the realities of thought and experience, and the subject from which the disciplines of the human sciences arise; therefore where there is no text there is no object of study, or even of thought. Theorists such as J. Derrida proposed that the world itself can be viewed as a text. In the 1960s the semiotican Roland Barthes investigated the role of semiotics in visual culture, and attempted to analyze the mechanisms which generate meaning in visual images. He distinguished between a "work," which he characterized as a finite body with an authorial intent and determinate meaning which is ‘consumed’ by the reader, and a "text," which was indeterminate, open-ended, and continually subject to reinterpretation as audiences changed [10, p. 67].

A ‘text’, within literary theory, is a coherent set of symbols that transmits some kind of informative message. This set of symbols is considered in terms of the informative message's content, rather than in terms of its physical form or the medium in which it is represented. In the most basic terms established by structuralist criticism, therefore, a ‘text’ is any object that can be "read," whether this object is a work of literature, a street sign, an arrangement of buildings on a city block, or styles of clothing [3, p. 116].

Within the field of literary criticism, ‘text’ also refers to the original information content of a particular piece of writing; that is, the "text" of a work is that primal symbolic arrangement of letters as originally composed, apart from later alterations, deterioration, commentary, translations, paratext, etc. Therefore, when literary criticism is concerned with the determination of a ‘text’, it is concerned with the distinguishing of the original information content from whatever has been added to or subtracted from that content as it appears in a given textual document (that is, a physical representation of text).

Since the history of writing predates the concept of the ‘text’, most texts were not written with this concept in mind. Most written works fall within a narrow range of the types described by text theory. The concept of ‘text’ becomes relevant if/when a coherent written message is completed and needs to be referred to independently of the circumstances in which it was created [43, on-line].

I.2. Textuality and Intertextuality as the Text’s Attributes

The text is an indecidable. The text’s indecidable is elaborated in terms of and as an operative feature of its textuality. Indeed, the text’s textuality is its indecidable. Is not that the text is one thing and that there is a problem of determining what that thing is- although an articulation of the status of the test in no easy matter and elucidating its textuality is not a simple procedure. The indecision is not a psychological state of the reader, although interpretation is usually necessary in order to make sense of the test’s textuality. The reader often requires an interpretation in order to dispel any confusion that might arise, or the reading, of a text. However, the text’s indecidability does not lie in the reader’s confusion. Furthermore, the text’s indecidability does not result from an indeterminacy of reference or a simple multiplicity of references. Many texts do exhibit a world in which it is often unclear as to what (if any) reality, what (if any) experience, what (if any) event is cited or invoked/ any many texts offer various possible worlds do or could suit the narrative offered in a particular text. But. Neither of these features characterizes the text’s indecidability. The text’s indecitability lies in its textuality or textualities through which the text establishes its identity as a text [40, p. 98].

Textuality is that which constitutes a text a s a text in a particular way. Textuality constitutes the text as an indecidable. The textuality of a text produces knowledge about the text.

Textuality is a concept in linguistics and literary theory that refers to the attributes that distinguish the text (a technical term indicating any communicative content under analysis) as an object of study in those fields. It is associated in both fields with structuralism and post-structuralism [22, p. 23].

Textuality is not just about the written word, it’s the placement of the words and the reader’s interpretation. There is not a set formula to elucidate a text’s textuality; it is not a simple procedure. Even though J.Hawthorn sees interpretation as less important or less problematic, interpretation is usually required in order to make sense of the text’s textuality. The interpretation that a reader develops from that text may decide the identity and the definitive meanings of that text.

Textuality, as a literary theory, is that which constitutes a text as a text in a particular way. The text is an indecidable (there is an inexistence of an effective or ‘strict’ method of writing or structure). The text’s indecidability, in fact, fabricates from its textuality or its textualities. Textuality, as defined in The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms is ‘the condition of being textual, or in other words of ‘writtenness’ [41, on-line].

Textuality is produced in the textualization of the text. In rendering itself text, the text offers up a textuality which is indecidability itself. Its textuality is indecidable because textuality occurs at the place where the text escapes definition, particular determination, specification, where the text effaces itself in favor of what Paul DeMan calls a “disfiguration”. Textuality occurs where text off-centers itself. The text is off-center, its textuality is its decentering in specific ways [6, p. 35].

A reading of the text occurs through its textuality or textualities. The text is what is read, but its textuality or textualities is how it is read. An interpretation of the text arises in that the textualities are understood as the meaning- structure of the text. The interpretation of the text brings the textuality or textualities in so as to take them outside the text, so as to specify and determine the text in a particular fashion. The text is apart from its readings and interpretations. Its textuality or textualitiesare constituted in a reading of the text and identified through an interpretation of it.

According to de Beaugrande and Dressler, the features of textuality are:

Cohesion and Coherence. Cohesion designates the "glue" which holds the propositions of a text together. Coherence designates the relation between a text and its "textual world". – Aboutness, topic of a text.

Intentionality designates the text producer’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text instrumental in fulfilling the producer’s intention, e.g. to distribute knowledge.

Acceptability designates the the text receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for the receiver.

Informativity concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text are expected vs. unexpected or known vs. unknown.

Situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation of occurrence – appropriateness.

Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or previously encountered texts [18, p. 142].

Being textual includes innumerable elements and aspects. Each and every form of text and text in that form of literature embraces and consists of its own individual and personal characteristics; these may include its personality, the individuality of that personality, the popularity, and so on. The textualities of the text defines the characteristics, however, the characteristics are also closely associated with the structure of the text, structuralism [25, p. 32].

The word ‘text’ arose within structuralism as a replacement for the older idea in literary criticism of the "work," which is always complete and deliberately authored. A text must necessarily be thought of as incomplete, indeed as missing something crucial that provides the mechanics of understanding. The text is always partially hidden; one word for the hidden part in literary theory is the "subtext" [6, p. 45].

Textuality is a practice. Through a text’s textuality, it makes itself mean, makes itself be, and makes itself come about in a particular way. At the same time, through its textuality, the text makes itself other than what it is in a particular way or ways. Through its textuality, the text relinquishes its status as identity and affirms its condition as pure difference. Because of its textuality, the text eludes itself, defines itself, or determines itself in particular ways.

But, in that its textuality is other, the text “dedefines” itself, inscribes itself in a texture or network of meaning which is not limited to the text itself. By dedefining itself, the text offers the possibility of a definitive reading and a decisive interpretation. By the very nature of its textuality, neither the definitive reading nor the decisive interpretation succeed. Although the reading may define and the interpretation may decide, the text neither defines nor decides. The text remains operationally and fundamentally indecidable. Its textuality as a practice is the text dedefining itself and rendering itself operationally and fundamentally indecidable [38, p. 435].

The text difference itself, its textuality is its differing from itself, making itself different. Each text is different. In differing, it differs, it produces a textuality which is consistent with and even identical to the textuality of other texts. Hence through its textuality, the text brings in, incorporates, and invokes other texts. But because the text is indecidable, its textuality does not determine once and for all which meaning or meanings, interpretation or interpretations, which reading or readings prevail and which ones do not.

In short, textuality is an individual and uncertain skill that will always be read and interpreted in texts in different ways, by different people, and at different times. It is a literary tool which can never be defined like an exact science and that will always be influenced by the writers different objectives of life, such as, their upbringing, education, culture, age, religion, gender, and multiple other persuading factors [3, p. 347].

Intertextuality is the shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can include an author’s borrowing and transformation of a prior text or to a reader’s referencing of one text in reading another. The term “intertextuality” has, itself, been borrowed and transformed many times since it was coined by poststructuralist Julia Kristeva in 1966. As critic William Irwin says, the term “has come to have almost as many meanings as users, from those faithful to J.Kristeva’s original vision to those who simply use it as a stylish way of talking about allusion and influence” [5, p. 164].

Kristeva argues that intertextuality coincides with the rise of Modernism, a period of cultural practice usually dated from the beginning of the 20th century and the publication of such authors as James Joyce, Marcel Proust, and Franz Kafka [5, p. 165].

Kristeva argues that, the text is not an individual, isolated object but a compilation of cultural textuality. Kristeva believes that the individual text and the cultural text are made from the same textual material and cannot be separated from each other. This is basically a re-phrasing of the Bakhtinian notion of the “dialogue,” which established a relation between author, work, reader, society, and history. The distinction is that Kristeva’s theory paid close attention to text, textuality, and their relation to ideological structures. Bakhtin’s work centers on human subjects using language in specific social situations, while Kristeva’s work deals with more abstract notions, such as text and textuality. However, both Bakhtin and Kristeva believed that texts cannot be separated from the larger cultural or social textuality out of which they are constructed. Therefore, all texts contain ideological structures expressed through discourse.

According to Kristeva, texts do not present clear and stable meanings. They embody society’s conflict over the meaning of words. Thus, intertextuality deals with a text’s existence within society and history. Texts have no unity or unified meaning of their own; they are thoroughly connected to on-going cultural and social processes. A text’s meaning is understood, in Kristeva’s view, as a temporary re-arrangement of elements with socially pre-existent meaning. Meaning then, is simultaneously both ‘inside’ (reader’s view) and ‘outside’ (society’s influence) the text [25, p. 16].

The communication between author and reader is always paired with an intertextual relation between words and their prior existence in past texts. As Kristeva stated: “any text is constructed as a mosaic of quotations; any text is the absorption and transformation of another [25, p. 17].

The notion of intertextuality replaces the notion of intersubjectivity, when we realize that meaning is not transferred directly from writer to reader but instead is mediated through, or filtered by, “codes” imparted to the writer and reader by other texts. For example, when we read James Joyce’s Ulysses we decode it as a modernist literary experiment, or as a response to the epic tradition, or as part of some other conversation, or as part of all of these conversations at once. This intertextual view of literature, as shown by Roland Barthes, supports the concept that the meaning of a text does not reside in the text, but is produced by the reader in relation not only to the text in question, but also the complex network of texts invoked in the reading process.

More recent post-structuralist theory re-examines "intertextuality" as a production within texts, rather than as a series of relationships between different texts. Some postmodern theorists like to talk about the relationship between "intertextuality" and "hypertextuality"; intertextuality makes each text a "living hell of hell on earth" and part of a larger mosaic of texts, just as each hypertext can be a web of links and part of the whole World-Wide Web [5, p. 201].

Some critics have complained that the ubiquity of the term "intertextuality" in postmodern criticism has crowded out related terms and important nuances. Irwin laments that intertextuality has eclipsed allusion as an object of literary study while lacking the latter term's clear definition. Linda Hutcheon argues that excessive interest in intertextuality rejects the role of the author, because intertextuality can be found "in the eye of the beholder" and does not entail a communicator's intentions.

By contrast, in A Theory of Parody Hutcheon notes parody always features an author who actively encodes a text as an imitation with critical difference. However, there have also been attempts at more closely defining different types of intertextuality [19, p. 14].

While numerous media scholars have adopted and employed the concept of intertextuality or describe the way audiences read media texts within the larger web media culture, few have recognized or accepted the full implications or possibilities of the concept as set forth by Barths and Kristeva. Most scholars who use the term have developed a restricted intertextuality which focuses on the relations between several texts.

The Australian media scholar John Fiske uses intertextuality to describe the way audience unconsciously create meaning by utilizing their vast knowledge of cultural codes learned from other texts to read a particular text. For Fiske intertextuality is a postmodern sensibility shared by audiences a reading formation that conceivices of texts as fragment in a larger web of textuality. He argues that the theory of intertextuality proposes that any one text in necessarily read in relationship with others and that a range of textual knowledge is brought to bear upon it [27, p. 163].

These relations do not take the form of specific allusions from one text to another and there in no need for readers to be familiar with specific texts to read intertextuality. Though reading intertextuality does not require specific textual knowledges, there are nonetheless some texts that make specific allusions, that invite readers to exercise specialized knowledge, and this too has been teemed intertextuality.

Rather than exploring how text construction is informed by the whole range of textuality, Fiske limits intertextual reading to a few “primary texts” that are “explicitly linked” and to other texts that refer “explicitly” or “directly” to the primary texts. The unconscious processes and implicit links that inform Barters’ and Kristeva’s outlook are ignored [32, p. 86].

In this latter formulation, intertextuality is not something audiences do, but something authors do. Far from being a consequence of death of the author, intertextuality is an identifiable stylistic device consciously employed by the author or in the case of media texts by the producer, to invite a particular audience response.

John Fiske has made a distinction between what he labels 'vertical' and 'horizontal' intertextuality. Horizontal intertextuality denotes references that are on the 'same level' i.e. when books make references to other books, whereas vertical intertextuality is found when, say, a book makes a reference to film or song or vice versa. Similarly, Linguist Norman Fairclough distinguishes between 'manifest intertextuality' and 'constitutive intertextuality.' The former signifies intertextual elements such as presupposition, negation, parody, irony, etc. The latter signifies the interrelationship of discursive features in a text, such as structure, form, or genre. Constitutive Intertextuality is also referred to interdiscursivity, though, generally interdiscursivity refers to relations between larger formations of texts [20, p. 121].

The view of intertextuality as interpretive practice represents a direct challenge to the modernist and formalist notions of “authorial originality” and influence. The intertextual in which every text is held, argues Barthes, is not to be confused with some origin of the text: to try to find the sourcesm the influence of a work, is to fall in with the myth of filiation, the citation which go to make up a text are anonymous, untraceable … they are quotations without commas [39, p. 262].

While the concept of intertextuality as textual strategy is most commonly used in media studies, it is not entirely absent from literary theory. Morson classifies literary figures such as imitation and parody as “intertextual utterances”.

Gerard Gennette also conceives of intertextuality as a stylistic device by arguing that reflects one of five possible “transtextual” relations a text may have with others. For Gennette, it refers specially to the presence of one text in another by means of quotation, plagiarism, or allusion. Though the term intertextuality is largely absent in the work of Bakhtin, Eco, Rose, the concepts of “double –voiced words” the “already said”, and “montage” provide alternatives for describing the way some texts incorporate others.

One can also make distinctions between the notions of "intertext", "hypertext" and "supertext". As an intertext it employs quotations from the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions. As a hypertext it consists of links to different articles within itself and also every individual trajectory of reading it. As a supertext it combines male and female versions of itself, as well as three mini-dictionaries in each of the versions [42, on-line].

Hypertextuality is a postmodern theory of the inter-connectedness of all literary works and their interpretation.

The prefix 'hyper' is derived from the Greek 'above, beyond or outside'. Hence hypertext has come to describe a text which provides a network of links to other texts that are 'outside, beyond and above itself'.

According to Gerard Genette in Palimpsestes, a book about hypertextuality, "hypotext" refers to the source of the text, as well as to previous editions or versions of it. Hypertext is related to paratext, which includes information that accompanies the text itself (illustrations, preface or introduction) [15, p. 97].

I.3. Classification of Texts

The text type is defined as a specific linguistic pattern in which formal/structural characteristics have been conventionalized in a specific culture for certain well-defined and standardized uses of language [17, p. 43].

The idea of textlinguistics is to categorize texts into different genres or text types. The distinction is based on the analysis of internal and external features as well as the function of the text.

Two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The term text type appears to be more frequently used in the linguistic context while genre relates stronger to the literary genre. Comparing literature concerning the text type discussion it becomes clear that the two terms are constantly overlapping. Most of the scholars mention the problem, explaining why they chose a certain set of terms and how they are going to use it throughout their papers. M. Görlach even states that there has "apparently not been an agreement about terms and definitions in the English scholarly tradition" [17, p. 58].

The delimitation A.H.Jucker tries to make shows that it is not only hard to distinguish between the two expressions but might lead to the assumption that there are difficulties even to distinguish among different varieties of text types or genres.

A third expression that seems to be problematic in definition occurs in the discussion. H. Biber defines text type as antonymic to register, register being regarded as "a general cover term for all language varieties" [4, p. 76].

M. Görlach classifies both registers and dialects as varieties of a language, while register is being used as a generic term including text type/genre among others, here again used interchangeably [17, p. 87].

These examples illustrate the difficulties finding a clear term definition. One might say that these problems reflect the attempts of delimitation among particular text types. C. Krause holds the specific features of linguistic communication responsible for these complications, which lead to a vagueness in the designation of texts and text types. Since it is of crucial importance to investigate both internal and external features of a text, but to decide for a term as well, we prefer to stick to text type, including features that might relate to genre, too.

The first New Testament textual critic to show interest in textual relationships seems to have been Johann Albrecht Bengel. In his 1725 essay on textual criticism, he notes that manuscripts need to be classified into companies, families, tribes and nations [9, p. 146].

Although all these levels of relationship exist, only two (the "family" and the "nation") have exercised the energy of textual critics to a significant degree. The highest level, J.A.Bengel's "nation," is what we now call a text-type [14, p. 65].

Different scholars evaluate the evidence of text-types differently. Specific attempts to precisely define the term "text-type" will be described below. For now, it is most important to remember the general definition: The Text-Type is the loosest sort of kindred relationship between manuscripts that can be recognized short of the autograph.

Text typology is concerned with the identification of the criteria leading to the classification (typology) of texts (or text types, text classes, styles, genres). Depending on the criteria adopted, there are several possibilities of classifying texts. Using some of the most obvious criteria, texts can be classified as spoken or written, dialogical or monological, spontaneous (unprepared) or ritual (prepared), informal or formal, individual (personal) and interindividual (interpersonal), private or public (official, institutional), subjective or objective, interactional (contact-oriented) and transactional (message-oriented), etc.

However, all text types identified on the basis of a single criterion, in contrast with those based on several criteria, often include instances which may reveal a more complicated patterning of features than those suggested by these dichotomies; for example, news bulletin scripts read by newscasters, dictation of a letter to a secretary, ritualized exchanges (greetings, politeness formulae) characterizing conversations, interactional features contained in otherwise transactional encounters (lectures), etc [32, p. 195].

J. Dolnik and E. Bajzikova maintain that it is possible to approach texts as either theoretical linguistic constructs (text typology), or as concrete psychological realities (text classification). The latter approach is based on the intuition possessed by every language user which is acquired through his/her practical experience with the production of texts and which represents a component of his/her communicative (stylistic) competence. The authors have it that one of the most important criteria is based on the study of the ways that dominating communicative functions of texts determine the choice of expressive means of language; e.g., in appeals, warnings, public notices the conative function dominates, in congratulations or expressions of sympathy it is the phatic function, in research reports the representational function, in advertising the persuasive function, etc [11, p. 34].

The functional perspective initiated the school functional stylistics and the elaboration of the theory of functional styles; functional approach is also present in differentiation of five functional styles of English (the publicistic, newspaper, scientific prose, belles-lettres styles and the style of official documents), and of D. Crystal and D. Davy who offer an in-depth analysis of five languages. (conversation, unscripted commentary, religion, newspaper reporting and legal documents), but suggest possibilities for the study of other varieties as well (the language of TV and press advertising, public speaking, written instructions, broadcast talks and news, science, the civil service and the spoken legal language). It should be noted that the variation based on the functional criterion represents one of the three principal types of variation of national language [8, p. 179].

The criterion of the global area of activity as proposed by J.Dolnik and E.Bajzikova is close to the identification of functional styles in that they identify journalistic, economic, political, legal and scientific texts. We consider their empirically based text classification firmly rooted in the structural-functional theory of text (toward which language users intuitively orient) as a viable approach since it integrates the criteria of communicative function, situation (context) and strategy [11, p. 98].

Functional Classification

The functional classification identifies illocutionary text types according to the type of the dominating illocutionary act: representative or assertive type (e.g., research reports, public notices, administrative texts, weather forecasts, diaries, CVs, lectures), directive type (e.g., commands, orders, invitations, instructions, directions, giving advice), expressive type (e.g., apologies, thank-you notes, greetings, condolences, compliments, toasts, congratulations), commissive type (e.g., promises, pledges, swears, offers, vows, contracts, bets), declarative or performative type (e.g., nominations, appointments, dismissals, accussations: I find you guilty as charged, marriage ceremonies, testaments, certificates). Texts viewed from this perspective satisfy diverse communicative needs of the society members [32, p. 45].

Situational Classification

The situational classification sorts out texts according to the .sphere of activity. (e.g., private, official or public, such as a private letter, a letter addressed to an institution) and form of communication (dialogical and monological, spoken and written texts).

Strategic Classification

The strategic classification deals primarily with the topic and the ways of its expansion: narrative, descriptive, and argumentative.

Narration, considered to be the most common and culture-universal genre, in its basic (unmarked) way of presentation follows a series of structural steps forming its universal template: a) abstract providing a .title. for a story, b) orientation giving information on the time, setting, characters and their roles, c) complicating action presenting d) problem, which must be overcome by characters in order to attain their goal, e) resolution signaling the attainment of the goal and f) coda bringing the story back to the beginning by providing a moral, summary, relevance, etc [27, p. 273].

Dispersed throughout a narrative (e.g., in the form of bracketed asides or side sequences), evaluation may contribute to the upkeeping of suspense and listeners involvement. The plot in narrative fiction is based on a parallel principle: exposition, conflict and denouement (or unknotting, resolution) [29, p. 117].

There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience. Features of the narration are:

Characters with defined personalities/identities.

Dialogue often included – tense may change to the present or the future.

Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story [15, p. 249].

Description of a static type lists (enumerates) typical features of an object or topic described in an orderly fashion: from more to less important features, from a whole to its parts, from the outside to the inside, etc. Description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event: describe a special place and explain why it is special, describe the most important person in your life, describe the animal's habitat in your report. Descriptive writing is usually used to help a writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc. In dynamic (processual, procedural) descriptions a temporal order of procedures is binding (e.g., recipes for making a food dish, instruction manuals). Static descriptions make frequent use of presentatives (there is/are), relative clauses, descriptive adjectives, prepositional and adverbial phrases; procedural descriptions abound in imperatives, passive constructions, purpose clauses (To switch to a different line …), impersonal constructions (It is advisable to make a backup copy of your disks), but also in assertions understood as directives (You use environment variables to control the behaviour of some batch files …), etc.

Argumentation, a process whereby a disputable position is supported, has been identified as “the basic organizational force underlying all linguistic communication” [43, on-line].

E. Hatch offers the following stages of a classical model of argumentation: introduction, explanation of the case under consideration, outline of the argument, proof, refutation (i.e., disproof) and conclusion. The genre has many variants three stages: position, dispute and support) and may be culturally determined [19, p. 58].

Some authors identify explication as a specific strategy whereby the nature of phenomena is explained, and information which provides a simple list of relevant features regardless of their mutual relations.

CHAPTER II. The cULINARY recipe as a text type

II.1. Definition of Recipe

Probably everyone has an idea of what a recipe is, what it looks like and what parts it consists of. Indeed, “many texts within the same genre follow similar patterns of layout, style and language. Most people within a Westernised culture have a pretty fixed idea of what a recipe genre, for example, involves; we could even say we hold a stereotypical view of a recipe. In spite of this, for the purposes of delimiting the key concept of the thesis, this chapter intends to identify the characteristic features that represent inalienable parts of every recipe.

A recipe in the modern sense of the word is defined as “a set of instructions telling you how to prepare and cook food, including a list of what food is needed for this” [46, on-line].

The Longman English Dictionary of Culture gives a shorter definition, saying that it is “a set of instructions for cooking a particular type of food” [43, on-line].

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the word in a modern way as “a statement of the ingredients and procedure required for making something, (now) esp. a dish in cookery” [41, on-line].

All the definitions stated above agree that, in general terms, recipe stands for a set of instructions that describe and show how to prepare or make something; in more specific terms, this something is usually a culinary dish. The definitions provided suggest what the constituent parts of a regular recipe are. The recipe consists of several organizing elements that make it one single whole.

Although there are some variations across the genre of recipes, as is the case in most existing genres, there are certain features which characterize the genre and help to make it clearly recognizable and distinguishable from other genres.

First, we will discuss the features which are common to the majority of recipes across the genre and which therefore represent core features of a prototypical recipe. Every recipe normally consists of several main components. It begins with the title, which specifies the name of the dish. The title is followed by the list of ingredients (sometimes the ingredients are listed in the order in which they are needed), which are required for the preparation of the dish. Ingredients are more often than not accompanied by their quantities and/or proportions that correspond to the number of servings (if these are specified). Finally, what a vast majority of recipes includes is an ordered list of preparation steps, also called preparation procedures, preparation techniques or method [16, p. 237].

Apart from the basic above-mentioned parts of a recipe, there are some other components which may not be common to all recipes, but are nevertheless typical of the genre and very often appear in many instances of modern culinary recipes. Some recipes may give further details and specifications as to the environment and equipment needed to prepare the dish. The recipe may also provide a rough estimation of the number of servings that the dish will provide as well as an estimation of how much time it will take to prepare the dish. Some recipes include information on how long the dish keeps and its suitability for freezing. For many recipes, especially those concerned with healthy lifestyle, keeping fit or with some dietary problems, it is not unusual for nutritional information and information on the amount of energy in the food to be included. The food’s calorific content is typically measured and usually stated in the form of the approximate number of calories or joules contained per serving. Nutritional information includes the numbers of grams of protein, fat, and carbohydrates per serving along with the vitamin content.

All of the above mentioned typical characteristics of a recipe pertain to the actual preparation of the dish. However, modern recipes also very often include some additional facts about a recipe which are not directly related to the preparation of the dish itself. These additional facts mostly serve the purpose of providing some more details about the recipe and the dish in general. They may include the history of the dish or other culturally related information and details [20, p. 54].

As far as the length of a recipe is concerned, a regular recipe is traditionally and conventionally a rather short piece of writing, taking up approximately one page of written text. However, the idea of a recipe as a short and concise piece of writing may be challenged by some of the modern cookbooks, as will be shown in the practical analysis of the recipes. Interestingly enough, in some cases, the background information mentioned above is sometimes even longer than the recipe itself [8, p. 74].

Another common purpose for a recipe is as a memory prompt for occasional or complicated procedures, and a cook's shorthand can be difficult for others to decipher. A recipe can be prescriptive, particularly in religious and medical uses. It can provide an ethnographic record, and gourmets have brought notes back from their travels since ancient times. A recipe can play an important part in culinary reproduction, as when a delighted guest takes home a copy. It might be a teaching device, as in the great compilations of household management. It might promote a chef, restaurant, cooking school, or commercial product, such as a proprietary ingredient or a generic food like beef. A recipe can even become literature in its own right and be read for pleasure.

As was already mentioned and as will be shown in the next practical part, there is considerable internal variation across the genre. Though it is certainly true that many texts within the same genre follow similar patterns of layout, style and language, differences in all these aspects are nevertheless noticeable. This is also very true of the organizing components of recipes. Since the way a recipe is organized may influence the language of a recipe, the actual linguistic analysis will necessarily take account of the differences in organization of recipes studied [7, p. 278].

The discussion of the recipe is based on the assumption that the recipe, as characterized by the setting in which it is typically used, by the communicative functions it has and by the participants it involves, developed over the course of time and through its repeated and regular occurrences in society and throughout history certain identifying markers of its language structure and language use, which are different from language used on other occasions, in different settings, i.e. in different communicative situations [12, p. 43].

Recipes are regarded in this thesis as representatives of written discourse. Admittedly, we can convey similar messages either in speaking or writing because our purpose may be the same but the language will vary between the two. Therefore, though the message conveyed by the recipe may be transmitted in both oral and spoken mode, the language of the recipe would be different in terms of both grammar and vocabulary used. Therefore, to limit the scope of the thesis, cases when a recipe is provided in spoken form are not considered. Moreover, there are not many cases of recipes produced in spoken mode. While it can be admitted that, in the past, recipes may have been spread through tradition without being written down, nowadays pure cases of recipes produced in spoken form are not very common. Recipes delivered in spoken form may be present especially in cookery TV programmes, where the process of cooking usually takes place in a real time and place. The whole process of cooking is being orally commented upon by the presenter, which gives rise to a recipe being given in the spoken mode. However, at the end of the cookery programme, there is usually a written version of the recipe provided on the screen for the viewers to copy. This shows that the preferred way of delivering recipes is, and has usually been in writing [1, p. 486].

The same is true for real everyday life. If someone asks for recipe, he typically asks for written version of it, unless it is a very simple recipe that does not require a complex process of preparation.

The recipe is an example of a piece of writing where the structure and order of information is very important and since there is a general expectation that people will not remember detailed facts correctly if they are only exposed to them in the spoken mode, especially if they are required to remember them over an extended period of time, it is only natural that recipients write down recipes along with other information and details they are told [3, p. 376].

The character of the recipe text is inherently connected with its written mode. Therefore, all recipes bear the important functional feature of quick and easy surveyability, which makes them accessible in a matter of minutes. This is also closely related to the not very extensive length of regular recipe texts, since recipes are traditionally and by definition “polydimensional”, extending over “more than one written or printed line but usually not exceeding two pages, unlike spoken utterance, which is inherently monodimensional. Like any other written utterances, recipes also bear the “documentary, preservable character of written utterances, so strikingly contrasting with the ephemeral, easy-to-forgotten character of their spoken counterparts. This is related to the permanent character of writing in general. Since writing involves a process of reworking and rewriting, recipes as representatives of written discourse are examples of planned discourse [40, p. 263].

II.2. The Features of Culinary Recipes

II.2.1. Grammatical Aspects of the Culinary Recipes

Any culinary recipe in English language represents logically connected text devoted to preparation of various dishes and consisting, as a rule, from several simple sentences, which purpose is to transfer the sequence of actions. However sometimes there are also compound sentences: When it has well risen, turn it out on the table. When done, divide muffins by pulling them open [50, on-line].

The sentence is defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea. In English language simple sentences are divided into unextended and extended. In the text of an English recipe simple extended sentences are used. These are Imperative sentences that express commands which convey to make someone perform an action. Commands are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood (positive or negative), the reference to the second person and lack of subject. For example: Mix flour with suet, fruit, sugar, cinnamon and soda. Stir in enough milk to make a soft batter. Dip a pudding cloth (cheesecloth) into boiling water; sink it in a basin large enough to hold the batter. Dredge it lightly with flour and spoon in the batter. Draw the fullness of the cloth together evenly. Then tie it tightly with string. But leave enough room for the dumpling to swell. Place a saucer or plate in the bottom of a large saucepan. Lift the dumpling into the pan. Pour in enough boiling water to cover. Simmer for a full 2 hours. Then untie. Turn out carefully onto a hot serving dish. Dredge with castor sugar. Serve with hot custard sauce. Yields 4 to 6 servings [2, p. 159].

Almost every sentence can be divided into certain components which are called parts of the sentence. Parts of the sentence are usually classified into main and secondary. The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate (sentence lacks subject in the case of culinary recipe). The secondary parts of the sentence are the object, the attribute, the apposition and the adverbial modifier. The secondary parts of the sentence modify the main parts or each other [28, p. 67].

Secondary parts of the sentence serve to define or modify not only the subject or the predicate but as well each other, forming with them extended parts of the sentence. For example: Bake pasty in a hot oven for 1 hour. In this sentence the secondary part an oven (object) is clarifying by another secondary part if the sentence hot (modifier), forming with it extended object a hot oven [33, p. 317].

Let’s examine the secondary parts of the sentence in the text of culinary recipe.

The Object. The object is a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence and expressed by a verb, an adjective, a stative or, very seldom, an adverb completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning. It answers the questions: whom? , what? , to whom?, by whom? , about what?, and etc [39, p. 172].

In English language the object may be of two kinds: the direct object and the indirect object. As a rule the direct object is used in the text of recipe. A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. The direct object is used irrespective of the absence or presence of other objects attached to the same verb. It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb. The most usual position of the direct object is that immediately after the predicate verb it refers to. For example: wash the potatoes thoroughly [30, p. 87].

In sentences of the text of culinary recipe the direct object can be expressed by:

noun (Take vegetables);

pronoun (Put it into the fridge);

numeral (Take 2 big potatoes. Cut the first into pieces and grate the second);

infinitive (Put some oil to fry potatoes) [18, p. 45].

The Attribute. The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person expressed by the headword either qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the point of view of situation. Attributes may refer to nouns and other words of nominal nature, such as pronouns (pronoun one and pronouns built up from some, any, every, no), gerunds and substitute words. It answers the following questions: what? , what kind of? , whose? , which? , how much? , how many?

In the text of culinary recipe an attribute may be expressed by different parts of speech:

adjective (Put it in a large tin);

participle (Take 7 boiled eggs);

numeral (Mix with two hundred grams of sugar);

pronoun (Grate some carrots).

The Adverbial Modifier. The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an adverb. It answers the questions: When? Where? Why? How? How much?

In case it modifies a verb the adverbial characterizes the action or process expressed by the verb and denotes its quality, quantity, or the whole situation. The adverbial modifier may refer to:

The predicate-verb or to a verbal phrase.

The whole of the sentence, especially if placed at the beginning of the sentence [32, p. 164].

Adverbials modifying adjectives, statives and adverbs usually denote degree or quantity. These adverbials modify:

Adjectives in their attributive or predicative function.

Statives in their predicative function.

Adverbs in their main function as an adverbial [23, p. 191].

In the text of culinary recipe adverbials can semantically denote:

time (Put the pan into the oven for 25 minutes);

place (Turn the pasty out on the table. Bake in a moderate oven);

manner (Fry the salmon with great care. Peel the potatoes thoroughly);

purpose (Add some salt to mix vegetables);

degree (Do not toast muffins too quickly. Butter the pieces slightly on both sides) [32, p. 107].

Adverbs of degree usually modify verbs, but some adverbs of degree can also modify adjectives or other adverbs. For example: Fry the chips rather well. Boil chicken only slightly [27, p. 273].

In the text of culinary recipe adverbial modifiers can be expressed by:

adverb (Turn out the pie quickly);

noun with a preposition (Put the cream into the fridge);

participle (While boiling, add some salt);

infinitive (Put everything in a fridge to frozen);

gerund with a preposition ( beet before peeling).

The text-as-a-product approach is focused on the text cohesion, coherence, topical organization, illocutionary structure and communicative functions. The text of culinary recipe is the instruction on how to cook different dishes, and there are a lot of simple homogeneous predicates bear the basic, expressed by verbs. They have one and the same syntactical function in the sentence and similar syntactical relations with other parts of the sentence. Homogeneous predicates are separated from each other by pauses in speech and generally by commas in writing. For example, Wash, peel and boil the potatoes, rub through a colander, add the water; then dissolve the yeast and salt in it, and stir in sufficient flour to make a moist paste [26, p.65].

In the text of culinary recipe the connection between the sentences is provided be the semantic repetition that is performed in several ways:

a) word-to-word repetition (Take one big potato. Wash the potato.);

b) a personal pronoun in third person (Pour the heavy cream into a bowl. Whip it until soft peaks form.);

c) its synonym (Cut some potatoes, carrots, cucumbers, tomatoes and peppers. Mix vegetables, and add some salt.);

d) word, that is not a synonym, but designates the same object (Put cut into pieces fish in a pot. Pour a glass of water. Add some salt… And put a pot in a moderate oven.);

e) a demonstrative pronoun, that expresses the identity of meant qualitative and quantitative indications (Cut bananas, grapes, oranges and apples. Add some cream. Mix it and put everything in a fridge.).

The sentence is a minimal unit of communication. From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into four types, grammatically marked: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory sentences. As a rule text of culinary recipe consists of imperative sentences. For example: Cook the rice in double its volume of boiling salted water or, better still, in fish stock…Peel and seed the cucumber and cut the flesh into pieces no larger than matchsticks…Melt the butter in a flameproof casserole, add the sticks of cucumber and cook over medium-low heat for 2 minutes, just stirring occasionally [47, on-line].

Imperative sentences express commands which convey the desire of the speaker to make someone, generally the listener, perform an action.

In the text of culinary recipe imperative sentences express, as a rule, directions on how to cook different dishes.

Imperative sentences could be either in the affirmative or (Toss everything lightly and set aside for at least 40 minutes), or in negative form (Do not toast muffins too quickly; otherwise the middle of them will not be warmed through) [19, p.61].

Formally commands, warnings, requests, instructions etc. are marked by the predicate verb in the imperative mood (positive or negative). The imperative mood expresses a command or a request to perform an action addressed to somebody, but not the action itself. As it does not actually denote an action as a real act, it has no tense category; the unfulfilled action always refers to the future. The imperative mood form coincides with the plain stem of the verb. For example: Peel and seed the cucumber. Toss the ingredients gently but thoroughly to mix them well. This form is always addressed to the second person.

The negative form is built by means of the auxiliary do + the negative particle not (the contracted form is don’t). For example: Do not boil eggs to long. Do not toast bread too quickly [4, p. 348].

The word order in imperative sentences is the same as in declarative sentences, but usually the imperative sentence begins with a verb, as the subject is not mentioned.

The predicate verb in imperative sentences is used only in the imperative mood (positive or negative): Lay the fish on top of the cucumber, don't stir it in. Put the watercress into a food-processor and reduce it to green flecks. Melt the butter in a flameproof casserole.), while the predicate verb in the declarative and interrogative sentences can be expressed in different forms (with the exception of imperative form) – the indicative mood (I write letters every day. He speaks French very well. We shell send you the documents as soon as we receive them from Moscow), the subjunctive mood (They covered the goods with canvas lest they be damaged by rain. I wish he were with us. The translation ill be finished tomorrow), the present tense, the future tense and the past tense, it also can be modal forms (He may have returned to Moscow. If I had a good dictionary I could translate the article. He cannot finish his work next week), that are not used in imperative sentences at all [23, p. 69].

An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted. For example: Stir together the flour, salt, sugar, suet and dried fruit. Roll the pudding in the cloth and tie the ends tightly. Turn the pudding onto a hot dish and serve with custard. However there are deviations sometimes, i.e. there are cases with two-member sentences that have two main (principal) positions: those of the subject and of the predicate. For example: Do not toast them too quickly, otherwise the middle of the muffin will not be warmed through [31, p. 109].

Quite a number of elliptical patterns are shortcuts in syntactic usage fixed as a form of linguistic economy by right of long usage. The problem of ellipsis is quite disputable in linguistics. Its interpretation depends on researchers understanding and the essence of units of language. In terms of traditional grammar, elliptical sentences are generally identified as sentences with the subject or predicate missing. Some grammarians hold another point of view recognising ellipsis also in sentences where the secondary parts of the sentence are felt as missing [23, p. 71].

In summary all these features characterize the structure of imperative sentence of culinary recipe as quite specific structure that differs from structure of declarative and interrogative sentences.

II.2.2. Lexico-Semantic Peculiarities of the Culinary Recipes

The lexis of recipes is one of the most salient features of the register of recipes. There is a high occurrence of certain linguistic expressions that are highly specific to the register. Other linguistic expressions seem not to be so confined to the register of recipes, but nevertheless seem to demonstrate higher rates of occurrence throughout recipes when compared with other registers. The high level of specificity of the vocabulary is manifested across nearly all word classes. The analysis of the lexis of recipes discusses three content word classes, more specifically nouns, verbs and adjectives. The main focus is placed on nouns and verbs as the two word classes which tend to be represented in the register in the greatest measure.

There are linguistic based approaches to the texts. While the discussion here is synchronic- the recipes are all roughly from the same span of time – one could look at the material diachronically, cross-generationally or cross – culturally. One could also look at handwritten “recipes” handed down within families to determine if those recipe forms show linguistic aspects that reflect an oral tradition rather than linguistic structures that derive from printed, mass-media forms, as the samples here tend to demonstrate. The presentation of recipes on the radio or television also suggests intriguing linguistic possibilities that point to the larger question of the influence of mass media on community assimilation, differentiation and affiliation [24, p. 178].

The text of culinary recipe isn’t heterogeneous: a symbolic alphabet forms a particular subsystem. For example: abbreviations (tbsp, tsp, C, fl C, L).

Lacunas words absent in culinary recipes, they are usually filled with commentaries. For example: Okróshka (a cold soup of Russian origin), Pastirma (air-dried cured beef), khachapuri (Georgian cheese pastry).

The lexico-semantic peculiarities of the culinary recipe are: unemotional character, exactness, logical coherence, impersonality, particular stratum of the vocabulary- terms and words used to express a specialized concept in a given context, loanwords; presence of abbreviations, lack of lacunas. The vocabulary is neutral, only the name is emotionally colored. The lexical units that organize the text are divided into prevalent, general scientific and highly specialized [25, p. 45].

Terms that are used in the text of culinary recipe are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. The highly specialized terms are subdivided into 3 groups: professional cooking terms that are international (flame, caramelize/ фламбиpoвать, каpамeлизиpoвать); basic cooking terms that have national equivalents in all languages (bake, chop, boil); terms applied in national kitchens, that are peculiar only to this national kitchen and aren’t translated (Blini, Pelmeni, Ravioli). There are a lot of loanwords among the highly specialized terms [13, p. 194].

The recipe posses unique semantic features as well. Considering the language of recipes from a broad perspective, disregarding the boundaries of individual words, it is possible to notice a number of fixed expressions which the language of recipes displays. Some of these fixed expressions may be connected purely and exclusively with the language of cooking and the language of recipes. These fixed expressions include ‘season to taste’, ‘bring to the boil’ (and its variations like ‘bring to a simmer’), ‘give sth (a mixture) a stir’ and others.

The recipe’s descriptive language- or evaluation clauses, as we call them – sets similar recipes apart from each other. It also requires a prior knowledge of the genre if these evaluation clauses are to be understood properly. When blending floor and shortening for pie crust dough, one has to know enough the procedure and outcome to understand what is meant by evaluation clauses such as “the size peas”, “the grain of cornmeal”, “like rolled oats”, which refer to the texture of the flour- shortening mixture. How think is “extra thick” or “desired thickness” and how much is “don’t’ work it in too much”? Much of the description in a recipe is scalar; and knowing where on the scale the meaning of an evaluation falls would indicate the extent of familiarity a recipe user has with genre. Also, some recipes incorporate more evaluating language than others. So merely counting the evaluating phrases would be another way to describe how different recipes get their point across [21, p. 153].

Vague language stands for the language lacking preciseness and explicitness of expression. As such it is considered to be more characteristic of spoken discourse than writing. It has been mentioned in several places throughout the thesis that one of the basic requirements of a recipe is its explicitness and preciseness of expression. This requirement is related to the main function of a recipe. However, it has been also noted that apart from including explicit expressions, there are also vague expressions featuring in the recipe texts analyzed. These vague expressions include ‘thing’, ‘a bit of’, ‘a couple of’, and the determiners ‘whatever’ and ‘whichever’.

International Culinary Dictionary by AndrewsInternational Culinary Dictionary by AndrCooking has a language all its own and if you are unfamiliar with that language, it
can be just like stepping into a foreign land when you try a new recipe. For many beginning cooks, the vast amount of culinary vocabulary seems intimidating at first. Many terms have similar meanings, but the differences between these terms often have a huge impact. There are a lot of Culinary Dictionaries such as: A Culinary Dictionary by Elizabeth Riely, Webster's New World Dictionary of Culinary Arts, International Culinary Dictionary by Andrews, Cupboard Love: A Dictionary of Culinary Curiosities by Mark Morton.

These dictionaries of the culinary arts contain definitions of culinary terms (including “foreign terms” from all the world's cuisines, not just European) and thousands of cooking ingredients, substitutes for those ingredients you don't have hand, nutrition information and sources for where to find those elusive ingredients, measurement and conversion charts, phonetic pronunciations, cross-references, and origins and usage designations [48, on-line].

Much of the English language is made up of words and phrases from other languages, and the vocabulary of food is especially peppered with many foreign words, especially French, Spanish and Italian. Menus, recipes and methods will regularly use them rather than the English translation. Those most frequently used include: a la carte, anglaise, au bleu, au gratin, bain-marie, bien cuit, blanquette, bouchee, bouillon, bouquet-garni, brunoise, canapé, chantilly, chateaubriand, chaud-froid, cloute, cocotte, compote, concasse, consomme, contrefilet, court-bouillon, crapandine, dariole, degorger, demi-glace, emincer, l’entrecote, en branche, escalope, espagnole, etuver, farce, farci, foie gras, fricassee, fume, fumet, glace, hors d’oeuvre, julienne, jus lie, jus roti, liaison, macedoine, marinade [49, on-line].

Apart from showing indications of lexical diversity, the language of recipes also displays a large proportion of expressions which may be regarded as register specific, being restricted in their use to the domain of cooking solely. The language of recipes thus seems to be a register with its own highly specialized terminology.

II.3. History of Culinary Recipe and English Cuisine

English cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with England. It has distinctive attributes of its own, but also shares much with wider British cuisine, largely due to the importation of ingredients and ideas from places such as North America, China, and India during the time of the British Empire and as a result of post-war immigration [21, p. 136].

Recipes and names of dishes allow to judge people as signs of tagging and national identification by what they eat. Every nation associates itself with certain dishes. National identification is tied with religious stereotypes, its components is abstention from the certain kinds of dishes for an appointed period of time by reason of religion. The culinary represents a very important part of consumer culture, formation of cultural values – cooking etiquette and food and wine pairings [35, p. 219].

Written recipes are presumably as old as literacy, which emerged to control food supplies in the earliest civilizations. Recorded instructions had the advantages of wide and accurate transmission and archival retrieval. The power of naming, discussing, and borrowing was reserved to the tiny literate elite for thousands of years, contributing to the separation of high cooking, investigated by the social anthropologist Jack Goody in Cooking, Cuisine, and Class [45, on-line].

The oldest surviving recipes are probably those impressed into three clay tablets 3,700 years ago somewhere in what is now . Held in the cuneiform collection and previously mistaken for pharmaceutical formulas, the recipes would have been recorded by Babylonian scribes on behalf of the male cooks of a temple or palace. Their translator, Jean Bottéro, said the best-preserved tablet fits twenty-five recipes into just seventy-five lines. The recipes list the chief ingredients, the basic steps, and the name, which is derived from the chief ingredient or appearance when served. The only other readable tablet devotes 250 lines to seven recipes for various kinds of birds, both domestic and game. The recipes indicate many steps, numerous utensils, and complex combinations.

Many ancient Greek, Egyptian, Punic, Arabic and Roman recipes are known. The oldest surviving recipes are probably those impressed into three clay tablets 3,700 years ago somewhere in what is now . Held in the cuneiform collection and previously mistaken for pharmaceutical formulas [7, p. 327].

Much later, in the 4th or 5th century, appears the large collection of recipes conventionally entitled 'Apicius', the only more or less complete surviving cookbook from the classical world. It chronicles the courses served which are usually referred to as Gustatio (appetizer), Primae Mensae (main course) and Secundae Mensae (dessert). The Romans introduced many herbs and spices into western cuisine such as basil, bay, dill, fennel, mint, parsley, rue and thyme [34, p. 121].

King Richard II of commissioned a recipe book called Forme of Cury in 1390, around the same time another book was published entitled Curye on Inglish. Both books give an impression of how food was prepared and served in the noble classes of at that time. The revival of the European class system at this time brought entertainment back to the palaces and homes of the nobility and along with it the start of what can be called the modern recipe book. By the 15th century, numerous manuscripts were appearing, detailing the recipes of the day. Many of these give very good information and record the re-discovery of many herbs and spices including coriander, parsley, basil and rosemary, many of which had been brought back from the Crusades [44, on-line].

In medieval English manuscripts, numerous sentences begin "Tak wyte wyn" (Take white wine) and "Tak partrichys rostyd" (Take roasted partridges). Others instruct "Nym water" and "Nym swete mylk," using the archaic "nim" (or "nym"), which means "take." Yet others start "Recipe brede gratyd, & eggis" (Take grated bread and eggs), borrowing the Latin verb recipere (to take). Medieval recipes generally did not include measurements and times, providing a challenge for modern interpreters, who often are divided over how spicy the original dishes tasted [51, on-line].

The proliferation of recipes in was boosted by the advent of the printing press (using the principle of grape and oil presses) around 1440. The relatively ready availability of recipes facilitated social emulation and gastronomic discussion and broke the nexus of master-apprentice. Early modern cooks may have been reticent to publish arcane information, but the dearth of French publication ended in the 1650s [13, p. 74].

Old recipes provide clues as to how others dined, but their relationship with actual practices is far from straightforward. The existence of a recipe might even be misleading, because the need for an aide-mémoire suggests rarity; common procedures did not need spelling out. Printed texts have often represented a sometimes idiosyncratic or idealized version of reality. For such reasons, culinary historians have shown an interest in personal recipe manuscripts. Relatively little concerted effort has yet gone into recording actual foodways before they are lost, however. Old manuscript recipes are frequently difficult to interpret because they were often written as personal memory aids for the cooks, and for their eyes only. Added to this is the difficulty of archaic language and the fact that writers spelled words as they pronounced them, as in the case of the following recipes from the cookbook of Francis Boothby, dated 1660.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, competition between the large houses became commonplace and numerous books were written on how to manage households and prepare food. In and competition grew between the noble families as to who could prepare the most lavish banquet. By the 1660s, cookery had progressed to an art form and good cooks were in demand. Many of them published their own books detailing their recipes in competition with their rivals [21, p. 154].

By the 19th century, cooking had become a passion throughout the world. Using the latest technology and a new concept in publishing, Mrs Beeton (1836–1865) published her famous Book of Household Management in 24 monthly parts between 1857 and 1861. With mass literacy and the mass production of cookery books from the mid-nineteenth century, enormous treatises extended to a thousand pages and by the early twentieth century exceeded two thousand pages [36, p. 98].

The most important change early in the nineteenth century was toward numerical rigidity. Instructions such as "do it till it is done" can be unsettling. However, traditional cooks knew when "it is done" better than they knew "twenty-five minutes." Abstract time measurement and punctuality only became ingrained in industrial, urban society. The preoccupation with precise recipes belongs to "rationalization," the shift from hands-on, traditional methods to calculation, measurement, and control.

By the mid 20th century, there were thousands of cookery and recipe books available. The next revolution came with the introduction of the TV cooks. The first TV cook in was Fanny Craddock who had her show on the BBC, later followed by chefs such as Graham Kerr (known as the Galloping Gourmet). These TV cookery programs brought the recipes of these cooks to a new audience who were keen to try out new ways of cooking [37, p. 167].

Today, recipes have been a widespread marketing device. Incalculable numbers of recipes arrive on packaging, supermarket leaflets, in newspapers, magazines, books and on the Internet.

CHAPTER III. ANALYTIC DESCRIPTION OF ENGLISH CULINARY RECIPE

III.1. Grammar Analysis of English Culinary Recipes

The third chapter is dedicated to the distinguishing traits of the record of receipts from the viewpoint of the particular syntactic characteristics that present themselves in different grammar domains. The language’s syntactic level can not exist without the lexis that can be evaluated as a foundation that is why this chapter pays also attention to some facets of the language of culinary receipts’ lexical characteristics that have been presented in the second chapter.

Comparing spoken discourses with written texts, it can be found out that written texts have more complex structure and model of organization. That is why written texts are characterized by the frequent presence of complex clauses with a number of different means of combining the sentences. As a result, one of the goals of this chapter is to explore in what way the register of culinary receipts shows the multiplicity of structure that is one of the particularities of the written texts.

The begging of the third chapter deals mainly with the ways of joining the individual clauses to each other. This research is aimed at the establishment of the complications of the syntax level in the language of culinary receipts. The second part of the chapter pays attention to other syntactic features of the language of receipts. The last part of the diploma is devoted to the specificity of English culinary recipes translation and translation error analysis.

a) The Complex Sentence

Infinitives or participle constructions are considered to be one of the most recurrent ways of linking clauses in complex sentence-type. These means are frequently used in recipes too. Table 1 “Occurrences of Participle Constructions and ‘to’ infinitives” (see Annex 1) gives the figures of prevalence when Infinitives (19 times) and Participle constructions (25 times) are used to compose complex sentence. Sometimes the figures can be compared to the figures of presence of several coordinated conjunctions early examined.

The pattern of receipt displays the usage of infinitives and participle constructions in text of recipes.

Put the sugar, butter and 150ml of the cream in a pan and stir continuously until the sugar is dissolved and the butter melted. Let bubble for a minute or two, stirring frequently, then remove from the heat and leave the sauce to cool completely. – B каcтpюлю наcыпьтe cаxаp, пoлoжитe маcлo и налeйтe 150 мл cливoк, пocтoяннo пoмeшивая, пoка cаxаp нe pаcтвopитcя, и маcлo нe pаcтаeт. Дайтe пpoкипeть в тeчeниe минyты или двyx, чаcтo пoмeшивая, затeм cнимитe c oгня и ocтавьтe coyc, чтoбы oн пoлнocтью oxладилcя.

b) The Compound Sentence

The analysis of the receipt text reveals many methods of linking independent clauses together. According to the research compound sentences are one of the most incessant categories, showing a great number of coordinate conjunctions. Other particularity of the texts of receipts is huge number of different coordinating conjunctions; such as ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘and’ and ‘then’.

Table 2 “Occurrences of Coordinating Conjunctions” (see Annex 1) reflects figures of occurrences of different kinds of coordinating conjunctions used in the aim of joining the clauses. According to this figure, that was made on analysis of Lawson’s cookbook, it can be said that conjunction ‘and’ is the most frequent – 133 times in comparison to ‘then’- 29 times, ‘or’ – 15 times and ‘but’ – 14 times.

The receipt below reflects the way individual clauses are combined in a typical receipt text. The bold marked words represent the coordinating conjunctions earlier mentioned.

Heat the olive oil in a wide, heavy – based pan and sauté the aubergine, onion, celery and red pepper with some seasoning over a high heat for about 5 minutes. – Hагpeйтe oливкoвoe маcлo в шиpoкoй каcтpюлe c тoлcтым днoм и oбжаpивайтe в маcлe пpи выcoкoй тeмпepатype баклажан, лyк, ceльдepeй и кpаcный пepeц c пpипpавами в тeчeниe пpиблизитeльнo 5 минyт.

Drop the tomatoes into a pot of boiling water for a minute, refresh under cold water and peel. Halve, deseed and cut into chunks. Add to the pan with the garlic, sugar, vinegar, olives and capers. – Oпycтитe пoмидopы в каcтpюлю c кипящeй вoдoй на минyтy, пpoмoйтe в xoлoднoй вoдe и oчиcтитe oт кoжypы. Pазpeжьтe пoпoлам, yдалитe ceмeна и пopeжьтe на кycoчки. Дoбавьтe иx в каcтpюлю c чecнoкoм, cаxаpoм, yкcycoм, маcлинами и капepcами.

Whiz until the mixture is very fine, then pour these crumbs on to a plate. – Bзбивайтe, пoка нe измeльчитe cмecь, затeм выльeтe этoт кpeм на таpeлкy.

From the example above it is seen in what way the coordinating conjunction “then”, “until”, “and” and commas are used in the text of receipt presupposes the sequence in which the activities should be implemented.

The example displays that the number of the conjunctions of coordination in the receipt text a little bit preponderate over complex conjunctions. The conjunctions of coordination underlined are contrasted with the conjunctions of complex sentence that will be examined in the following part of this chapter.

You can either bake or fry the chicken. If baking, preheat your oven to its highest temperature, place your chicken on a baking tray and cook for 15 minutes. – Bы мoжeтe или запeчь, или пoджаpить цыплeнка. Ecли вы бyдeтe запeкать, пpeдваpитeльнo pазoгpeйтe дyxoвкy дo ee cамoй выcoкoй тeмпepатypы, пoлoжитe цыплeнка на пpoтивeнь и гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 15 минyт.

If frying, put a frying pan on medium heat, add a few good lugs of olive oil and cook the chicken breasts for 4 to 5 minutes on each side, until cooked through, golden and crisp. – Ecли бyдeтe зажаpивать, нагpeйтe cкoвopoдy дo cpeднeй тeмпepатypы, дoбавьтe oливкoвoгo маcла и пoджаpивайтe кypиныe гpyдки в тeчeниe 4 – 5 минyт c каждoй cтopoны, пoка кopoчка нe cтанeт зoлoтиcтoй и xpycтящeй.

c) Conditional Clauses

The conditional sentence with ‘if’ is the other type of clause that will be examined due to the frequency of its usage in the context of culinary recipes that have been analyzed. However, in comparison with time clauses conditional clauses with ‘if’ are not used so often. Conditional clauses are the second most typical type of complex sentences used in texts of culinary receipts after time clauses, in spite of considerable difference in the frequency of usage between these two types.

The Jamie Oliver’s cookbooks reveal the highest figures of occurrences of ‘if’ clauses and the fragment of the culinary receipt taken from his cookbook displays the usage of this type of clauses:

If using crème fraîche, put it into a bowl, grate the rest of your orange zest and stir well. – Ecли иcпoльзyeтe кpeм-фpeш, пoмecтитe eгo в миcкy, натpитe ocтавшyюcя цeдpy апeльcина и тщатeльнo пepeмeшайтe.

If using vanilla ice cream, sprinkle a few tablespoons of desiccated coconut on a plate and quickly roll a scoop of ice cream in it until coated. – Ecли бyдeтe гoтoвить, иcпoльзyя ванильнoe мopoжeнoe, пocыпьтe нecкoлькo cтoлoвыx лoжeк выcyшeннoгo кoкocoвoгo opexа на таpeлкy и oбваляйтe шаpик мopoжeнoгo в кoкocoвoй cтpyжкe, пoка oн вecь нe бyдeт eй пoкpыт.

Table 3 “Occurrences of ‘for’” (see Annex 1) reveals the occurrences of ‘for’ constructions in the entire pattern of receipts and the quantum of ‘fors’ that are used as adverbials that express duration. The figures reflect the fact that in the cookery book of Gordon R., all the ‘fors’ serves as adverbials of time – 26 from 26; in the cookery book of Lawson N. 23 of ‘fors’ from 36 are used in this function; and in the cookery book of Oliver J. 30 from 39 of ‘fors’ serves as time adverbials.

d) Adverbial Clauses

Pattern of recipe given above illustrates the fact that the adverbial clause is the most recurring type of all clauses met in the receipt texts. This fact reflects the major attribute of the cookery recipes and its functions. The main aim of every receipt is to give the instructions to the people who read them in order to cook particular dish successfully. This includes not only accurate particularization of the order of the activities that is assured by means of early examined the conjunctions of coordination but also the exact description how and in which order the points should be performed and information on time specifications. Mainly the last noticed characteristic clearly illustrates the fact that time clauses display the highest figures of prevalence among all the adverbial clauses in the text of culinary recipes. Time clauses can be viewed as coefficient of time specifications and durations and one of the most considerable distinctiveness of the receipt text. Before, until, while, when, as and etc. are conjunctions that can be met in the text of a recipe.

Table 4 “Occurrences of Time Clauses” (see Annex 1) gives figures of time clauses, represented in the accordance with various conjunctions that are used in order to link the individual clauses together. According to obtained numbers, it was found out that the time clauses with ‘until’ are the most frequent – their number achieves in the analyzed cookbooks – 24-25, comparing with time clauses with ‘when’ 7-11. And time clauses which are not so popular in the receipt texts have in their composition ‘while’- 2-5, ‘as’ -2-6, ‘before’ – 6-11.

Meanwhile, discard any unopened mussels and the garlic, then divide the mussels among warm serving bowls. – Teм вpeмeнeм избавьтecь oт вcex нepаcкpытыx мидий и чecнoка, затeм pазлoжитe мидии пo тeплым cepвpиpoвoчным блюдам.

During the research it was found out that the conjunction ‘until’ is the most popular conjunction of coordination used by all authors in their receipts. The next subchapter discusses more detailed the matter of adverbial clauses. At this stage, the pattern of receipt is given in order to present the usage of the most frequent type of adverbial clauses – time clause with preposition ‘until’ in the structure of the complex sentence in the context of cookery receipts. The receipt given below displays two subordinate clauses with conjunction ‘until’.

Heat a large heavy – based saucepan with a tight – fitting lid until it is very hot, then add the olive oil. – Hагpeвайтe бoльшyю каcтpюлю c тoлcтым днoм c пoдxoдящeй пo pазмepy кpышкoй, пoка oна нe cтанeт oчeнь гopячeй, затeм дoбавьтe oливкoвoe маcлo.

Cover the pan with the lid and let the mussels steam for 3 – 4 minutes until they are fully opened. – Hакpoйтe каcтpюлю кpышкoй и дайтe паpитьcя мидиям 3 – 4 минyты, пoка oни пoлнocтью нe pаcкpoютcя.

The above given example shows in what way the subordinate sentence with ‘until’ assist to determine the endurance of the activities prescribed in the receipt or the moment up to which the activities should be performed and at which it should be brought to an end. Due to the examples stated it becomes clear that that the adverbial clauses with ‘until’ are in many cases sustained or followed by the adverbials of duration.

The explicit time specifications are represented by time clauses with ‘for’ accompanied by minutes, hours, days, weeks or numbers, whereas time clause with ‘until’ render mainly linguistic characterization of superficial conditions.

Bring to a simmer and let bubble for 2 minutes. – Дoвeдитe дo кипeния на мeдлeннoм oгнe и дайтe пpoкипeть в тeчeниe 2 минyт.

As a result, it can be said that the extend of need of precision and exactness of time specification determines used ways and means of adverbial of duration and number of minutes or hours alone, the linguistic description produced by the time clause with ‘until’, sometimes both these ways can be used together in order to offer the highest possible extent of process specification.

e) Direct Object’s Omission

The third part of the work examining the lexical characteristics of the language of culinary receipts as well investigates the diversity of verbs presenting themselves in receipts’ texts. In the process of examination of the syntax of receipts, the most important subject is considered to be the constructions of verbs with other words.

This smuggest the issue, that seems to represents one of the most distinguishing characteristics of the style of recipes. It was found out that the occurrence of zero anaphors or as it is as well identified ‘pro – drop anaphors’ or ‘null anaphors’ is one of the most representative attributes revealed in the language of receipts, mainly on the syntax level. This appears for the situation when the direct object of transitive verbs is missed.

The receipt taken from the cookery book of Gordon Ramsay demonstrates the utilization of omission of pronouns. The symbol Ø shows the place in the sentence where the pronoun has been ommited.

Drop the tomatoes into a pot of boiling water for a minute, refresh Ø under cold water and peel Ø. Halve Ø, deseed Ø and cut Ø into chunks. Add Ø to the pan with the garlic, sugar, vinegar, olives and capers. – Oпycтитe пoмидopы в каcтpюлю c кипящeй вoдoй на минyтy, oxладитe Ø пoд xoлoднoй вoдoй и oчиcтитe Ø oт кoжypы. Pазpeжьтe Ø пoпoлам, yдалитe ceмeна Ø и пopeжьтe Ø на кycoчки. Дoбавьтe Ø в каcтpюлю c чecнoкoм, cаxаpoм, yкcycoм, маcлинами и капepcами.

Cook Ø over a high heat for 5 – 8 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the aubergine is tender. – Гoтoвьтe Ø пpи выcoкoй тeмпepатype в тeчeниe 5 – 8 минyт, инoгда пoмeшивая, пoка баклажан нe cтанeт мягким.

Cut the cauliflower into small florets, put Ø into a saucepan with the bay leaves and cover Ø with cold water. – Пopeжьтe цвeтнyю капycтy на малeнькиe кoчeшки, пoмecтитe Ø в каcтpюлю c лавpoвыми лиcтьями и залeйтe Ø xoлoднoй вoдoй.

Let the cauliflower drain again in a colander, pluck out the bay leaves and discard Ø. – Дайтe цвeтнoй капycтe cнoва выcoxнyть в дypшлагe, вытащитe лавpoвыe лиcтья и выбpocьтe Ø.

These examples demonstrate the fact that the direct object omission is used very frequent in such text type. In spite of the fact that the figures of omissions of direct objects are not presented for every cookbook apart, the congruence of the frequency of usage of ‘it’ as direct object pronouns serve in order to illustrate the inclination towards omissions of direct objects in receipts. The figures obtained surmise that the cookery book by Gordon R. manifests the highest inclination towards the omissions of direct objects – (see Annex 1, Table 5 “Occurrences of ‘it’ as Direct Object Pronouns”). There are 4 cases with ‘it’ as direct object pronouns, in the cookery book of Lawson N. – 27, and book of Oliver J.

Making a parallel with other languages in which the omission of definite object noun phrases is revealed more often in the context of receipts, this phenomenon can be rarely met in English. Due to the performed research it was found out that the language of English culinary receipts is the exclusive text type in English where this phenomenon can be met with. That is why so much attention was paid to this phenomenon.

f) Ellipsis

Direct object omissions examined earlier can be regarded as to be distinct case of a phenomenon that looks to arise generally in the language of receipts that is identified as ellipsis. The omission of elements that can be definitely rested from occasional or linguistic context is identified as ellipsis. Ellipsis in not that kind of the phenomenon that is a uniform one, vice versa it contains many subcategories.

Toss the squash and kohlrabi into the pan. Season well and cook over a high heat for 2 – 3 minutes. Tip them into the hot roasting tray and sit the quails on top. Cook in the oven for 10 minutes. Lift the quails on to a warm platter and rest Ø for 5 minutes. – Бpocьтe cквoш и кoльpаби в каcтpюлю. Дoбавьтe дocтатoчнo пpипpав и ваpитe пpи выcoкoй тeмпepатype 2-3 минyты. Oпpoкиньтe иx на гopячий пpoтивeнь и пoлoжитe пepeпeлoв навepx. Гoтoвьтe в дyxoвкe в тeчeниe 10 минyт. Пepeлoжитe пepeпeлoв на тeплoe блюдo и ocтавьтe Ø на 5 минyт.

In the above given fragment null object is preceded by the verb ‘rest’ that is another example of object omission. Nevertheless in the given circumstances the linguistic expression convinces that it should be the executor of prescribed activity, i.e. the cook, not the object being subjected to cooking, i.e. the quails, that should be rested. So we are encountered with occasional context that aids to elude any admissible misunderstandings.

The elliptical model may be noticed not only regarding to direct object omissions, but is also found out in many other examples. There are several types of clauses, fist of all adverbial sentences with ‘until’, that are characterized by the presence of ellipsis. It has been already ascertained that time clauses with ‘until’ is the most numerous type used in different receipts. The receipt given below illustrates the usage adverbial ‘if’ clauses and of adverbial clauses with ‘until’.

Heat the olive oil in a large pan and sauté the leeks, potatoes, curry powder and seasoning over medium heat for 5 minutes or until the leeks have softened. – Hагpeйтe oливкoвoe маcлo в бoльшoй каcтpюлe и oбжаpьтe в маcлe лyк-пopeй, каpтoфeль, каppи-пopoшoк и пpипpавy пpи cpeднeй тeмпepатype в тeчeниe 5 минyт или пoка лyк-пopeй нe cтанeт мягким.

Add the milk, stock and bay leaf, bring to the boil, then simmer for 5 minutes until the potatoes are tender. – Дoбавьтe мoлoкo, бyльoн и лавpoвый лиcт, дoвeдитe дo кипeния, затeм кипятитe в тeчeниe 5 минyт, пoка каpтoфeль нe cтанeт мягким.

Discard the bay leaf and whiz the soup with a blender until smooth and creamy. Check the seasoning and reheat, adding a little extra hot stock or water to thin if needed. – Избавьтecь oт лавpoвoгo лиcта, и взбивайтe cyп блeндepoм пoка oн нe cтанeт oднopoдным и cмeтанooбpазным. Дoбавьтe пpипpавy и пoдoгpeвайтe, дoбавляя пoнeмнoгy ocтавшийcя гopячий бyльoн или вoдy, чтoбы cд6eлать eгo бoлee жидким, ecли нeoбxoдимo.

Table 6 “Occurrences of Ellipsis in Adverbial Time Clauses” (see Annex 1) provides with the presentation of the overall figures concerning adverbial ‘until’ clauses that have been noticed in the receipts. This figure is also completed with figures standing for the abbreviated elliptical analogues as well as for the full adverbial time clauses. The figures presented in the table reflect the fact that in two (Oliver J. and Ramsay G.) out of three analyzed cookery books the elliptical adverbial clauses not much exceeds (13 and 15) over those which are written in full (12 and 11). Other several types of clauses, for example ‘if’ clauses also show the inclination towards ellipsis, but which is not so evident. The situation becomes clear due to the obtained figures: the total number of adverbial time clauses with ‘until’ varies from 24 to 25.

g) Ellipsis in Partitives

However, the second chapter examined lexical peculiarities of the language of receipts; some aspects of partitives have been reviewed too. In the previous chapter partitives served to us as an instance of lexical complexity of the receipts’ language, as well they disclosed the highly specification of this kind of texts. This part of the diploma thesis deals with partitives as other sphere of action of ellipsis in receipts.

Partitives seem to be met in ‘of construction’. Nevertheless, obtained numbers illustrate the usage of partitives not only in this kind of constructions; however they are typical for partitives. ‘Of’ that is typically met with partitives in the cases when a noun follows is often omitted. Hence, in elliptical ‘off-less’ constructions partitives serves as shortened wordings of normal partitives.

The following receipt serves as the presentation of four occurrences of partitive constructions; three of them are used in abbreviated expressions, whereas only one is used in the normal ‘of construction’.

Crayfish, avocado & mayo toastiest

Toss 400g cooked crayfish tails with 4 – 5 tbsp mayonnaise and ½ tsp white truffle–infused olive oil. Stir through 1 chopped avocado and season with sea salt and black pepper to taste.

Lightly toast 4 thick slices of rustic white bread. Sandwich the crayfish filling between the toast slices and serve.

Peчнoй pак, авoкадo и тocты c майoнeзoм

Пepeмeшайтe гoтoвыx xвocтoв peчныx pакoв c 4 -5 cт. л. майoнeза и ½ ч. л. oливкoвoгo маcлo c бeлым тpюфeлeм. Pазмeшайтe c 1 наpeзанным авoкадo и пpипpавьтe мopcкoй coлью и чepным пepцeм пo вкycy.

Cлeгка пoджаpьтe 4 тoлcтыx кycoчка бeлoгo дepeвeнcкoгo xлeба. Пoмecтитe peчныx pакoв мeждy кycoчками тocта и пoдавайтe.

Table 7 “Occurrences of Ellipsis in Partitives” (see Annex 1) demonstrates that in the two out of three studied culinary books partitives with ‘of’ are more numerous than those without ‘of’. Therefore, the partitives are used in elliptical ‘off-less’ constructions as abbreviated wordings of regular partitives – 125 cases in the cookery book of Lawson N., in the cookery book of Oliver. J – 24 and in the last one 69. The total number of partitives varies from 94 till 165.

In conclusion, it can be said that the recipe as a written text is subjected to space constraints. Culinary recipe is a text type that can be arranged at one page, which is why it is very important that the information given to be very compact, but on the other hand it should remain very lucid. It is no surprising that all these factors together have a substantial influence on the syntax and on the arrangement of the information in what way the dish should be cooked.

The goal of this research is to determine peculiarities of the language of receipts on the syntax level. In correspondence to my gleanings, the syntax level of the language of recipes undoubtedly manifests some aspects of simplified language. There are several possible ways of language simplification. The variety compound and complex sentences is relatively limited; there are only a small number of conjunctions used to introduce clauses. Furthermore, there is a good few clauses that turn to be elliptical. There are and many other ways to simplify the language of message presented by receipt such as ellipsis, partitives and direct object omissions.

III.2. Semantic Aspects of English Recipes

One of the most evident characteristics of this text type seems to be the lexis. A great number of fixed linguistic expressions is considered to be other peculiarity of cookery receipts. However some linguistic expressions are not strictly bound to recipes, but nevertheless they manifest higher levels of occurrence in such texts in comparison with other recordings. It was found out that the high level of vocabulary peculiarity can be observed practice in all word classes. In this part of work will be performed an analysis on the lexical level of cookery receipts, three word classes nouns, verbs and adjectives will be examined. The essential attention will be drawn to two parts of speech: verbs and nouns, due to the fact that they turn to be more numerous in the text of cookery receipts in comparison with other parts of speech.

a) Nouns

Common nouns

Nouns are one of the most numerous and significant word categories that exhibit themselves in receipts. Declaring that the nouns are one of the most significant parts of speech does not differentiate this type of written discourse from other types of records In English and, furthermore, from practically all discourses, because nouns, this fact is well-known, are one of the most often used word classes. Table 8 “Occurrences of Nouns” (see Annex 1) provides the numbers (from 419 till 766) of nouns that occur in the pattern of receipts examined in each cookery book.

The character of nouns we come across as well as repetitive words combinations is one of the most considerable distinctiveness of culinary texts that differentiates them from any other text type. It is evident that nouns that occur while thinking about the receipts refer to the process of concoction and food. The theme instinctively influence and defines the selection of noun and of course their correlation to other words used in receipts.

The names of ingredients that are demanded for the cooking of the course represent the backbone of the nouns applied in the texts of receipts. The numbers obtain due to the performed analysis reflect the occurrences of nouns that denote ingredients. In spite of the fact that the figures given encloses ingredients proper that are included in the list of ingredients as well as other nouns that stand for other categories needed for the cooking the course (e.g. foil) as well the names of the product that are prepared in the process of concoction (e.g. porridge, salad) and parts of the wholes (e.g. tongue, chips).

The fragment of the receipt given below illustrates nouns that name ingredients in connection with nouns denoting other categories. The words typed in bold indicate nouns of other categories, the words underlined indicate the nouns denoting ingredients.

Peel the garlic and zest the lemon. – Oчиcтитe чecнoк и дoбавьтe тepтyю цeдpy лимoна.

Put your crackers into a food processor with the butter, garlic, parsley sprigs, lemon zest and a pinch of salt and pepper. – Пoмecтитe кpeкepы в пищeвoй кoмбайн c маcлoм, чecнoкoм, вeтoчками пeтpyшки, тepтoй цeдpoй лимoна, щeпoткoй coли и пepцeм.

Whiz until the mixture is very fine, then pour these crumbs on to a plate. – Bзбивайтe, пoка cмecь нe бyдeт oднopoднoй, затeм выльeтe этoт кpeм на блюдo.

Sprinkle the flour on to a second plate. – Пocыпьтe мyкy на втopyю таpeлкy.

Push the crumbs on to the chicken breast so they stick – you want the meat to be totally coated. – Oбваляйтe кypинyю гpyдкy в паниpoвoчныx cyxаpяx, чтoбы мяco былo пoлнocтью пoкpытo.

As it is seen in the example of the receipt given the nouns representing diverse ingredients tend towards bounding together when a vat majority of ingredients are to be processed as well. Such a tendency towards bounding the ingredients together may be observed in all receipts.

Whereas the nouns written in the list of ingredients, which denote ingredients, are established and itemized due to the earlier noticed devices, the body of the instructions in most of cases characterizes the subdominants of the nouns mentioned in the list of ingredients. The following receipt illustrates in what way the ingredients are established and detailed in the list of ingredients and in what way they are later guided in the backbone of the receipt.

600g potatoes, peeled and cut into 1cm cubes – каpтoфeль copта Шаpлoтe, oчищeннoгo и пopeзаннoгo на кyбики в 1 cм

500ml milk (whole or semi-skimmed) – 500 мл мoлoка (цeльнoe или напoлoвинy cнятoe)

400ml fish or vegetable stock – 400 мл pыбнoгo или oвoщнoгo oтваpа

350g smoked haddock fillets – 350 гp. кoпчeнoгo филe пикши.

Heat the olive oil in a large pan and sauté the leeks, potatoes, curry powder and seasoning over medium heat for 5 minutes or until the leeks have softened. – Hагpeйтe oливкoвoe маcлo в бoльшoй каcтpюлe и oбжаpивайтe в маcлe лyк-пopeй, каpтoфeль, каppи-пopoшoк и пpипpавy пpи cpeднeй тeмпepатype в тeчeниe 5 минyт или пoка лyк-пopeй нe cтанeт мягким.

Add the milk, stock and bay leaf, bring to the boil, then simmer for 5 minutes until the potatoes are tender. – Дoбавьтe мoлoкo, oтваp и лавpoвый лиcт, затeм кипятитe в тeчeниe 5 минyт, пoка каpтoфeль нe cтанeт мягким.

Proper Nouns

In the receipt supplied earlier it could be seen such nouns that refer to the group of proper nouns. The receipt written below illustrates the usage of this group of nouns in the text of cookery receipts in a more detailed way. In spite of the fact that these nouns have foreign origins, have already lost their foreign ‘flavor’, that is why they do not start with a capital letter anymore and are viewed as other common nouns.

FRIED COD WITH AVOCADO AND ROCKET AND A PEA PURÉE – ЖAPEHAЯ TPECКA C ABOКAДO И PУКOЛOЙ И ГOPOXOBЫM ПЮPE

1 clove garlic 1 зyбчик чecнoка

Maldon salt coль Moлдoна

300g frozen peas 300 гp. Замopoжeннoгo гopoxа

2 – 3 tablespoons crème fraîche 2-3 cт.л. кpeм – фpeша

2 – 3 tablespoons grated Parmesan 2-3 cт.л. тepтoгo cыpы Паpмeзана

or pecorino cheese или Пeкopинo

vegetable oil for frying oвoщнoe маcлo для жаpки

1 egg white 1 яичный бeлoк

75g rice flour 75 гp. pиcoвoй мyки

Kitchen Utensils and Cookery Equipment

The other substantial class of nouns, that represents another peculiarity of in the language of receipts, is the range of nouns denoting various kitchen appliances and cooking equipment required in the process of concoction of the course and working up of processing

In our time the process of cooking has become a very specialized activity engaging in a number of various methods and strategies, that is why the complication of the concoction’s process should be mirrored in the appliances that are required for the certain technique.

The diversity and categories of cookery equipment that need to be used in the process of the concoction of the dish, which seems to be a simple one, are manifested in the examples given below.

Bring a pan of salted water to the boil, add the rice and cook according to the packet instructions. – Дoвeдитe дo кипeния каcтpюлю c coлeнoй вoдoй, дoбавьтe pиc и пpигoтoвьтe coглаcнo инcтpyкциям на пакeтe.

Crush the peanuts up in a pestle and mortar, or else put them into a tea towel or plastic sandwich bag and use a rolling pin to bash them up. – Измeльчитe аpаxиc c пoмoщью cтyпки c тoлкyшкoй, или жe пoмecтитe иx в кyxoннoe пoлoтeнцe или плаcтикoвoй пакeт для бyтepбpoдoв и иcпoльзyйтe cкалкy, чтoбы pазмeльчить eгo.

b) Partitives

Besides nouns in the language of culinary receipts there is another category that names ingredients kitchen utensils, without which the concoction is impossible, is partitives, so are named various nouns that denote to “a part of a whole”, “to a single item” or to “a collection of items”.

Due to the performed analysis it was found out that in two out of three cookery books the number of partitives used in order to denote cookery equipment predominates over the nouns referring to the kitchen appliances. The reason of such disparity between the number of partitives and nouns that denote cookery equipment met in the list of ingredients and in the part where the process of preparing food is described consists in the fact that partitives bristles mainly the list of ingredients where nouns are mentioned by means of quantities. Although, in many cases there is no unit manifesting the appliances that are required (at least not in the receipts analyzed), hence the nouns denoting cookery equipment may be incidentally disadvantaged in the comparative counts.

The following examples illustrates in what way partitives are used in the main part of a receipt.

Peel a thumb-sized piece of fresh ginger and a clove of garlic and grate into a bowl. – Oчиcтитe кycoчeк cвeжeгo имбиpя pазмepoм в бoльшoй палeц и зyбчик чecнoка и натpитe в миcкy.

Stir in 1 tablespoon of sesame oil, 3 tablespoons of extra virgin olive oil, 1 tablespoon of soy sauce and the juice from 1 lime. – Pазмeшайтe 1 cтoлoвyю лoжкy кyнжyтнoгo маcла, 3 cтoлoвыx лoжки oливкoвoгo маcла xoлoднoгo oтжима, 1 cтoлoвyю лoжкy coeвoгo coycа и coка 1 лайма.

Albeit the receipt given earlier reflects a multiplicity of partitives, is should be indicated the fact that the partitives encountered in the example provided represent just a minor pattern of the vast majority that are displayed in receipts studied.

c) Numbers

In addition to partitives, we should speak about numbers used in order to indicate exactly the amount and dimensions of the ingredients required of any quantity. In receipts it can be noticed three most general categories of numbers. These categories are represented by cardinal numbers, decimal numbers, fractions as well as combinations of them with cardinal numbers.

Table 9 “Occurrences of Numerical Expressions” (see Annex 1) represents in what way different categories of numbers are used in the text of culinary receipts. The general quantum of numbers varies from 142 till 227; cases with cardinal numbers varies from 139 till 215, there are only 5 cases with decimal numbers, number of fractions varies from 4 till 13.

The necessity of these numbers is accounted for the fact that they indicate with accuracy the required the proportions and amounts of products needed for the cooking of the course.

Mainly these categories of numbers are the characteristic feature of the preface of receipts, i.e. the list if ingredients. In such a way, the obtained data embraced numbers included in the preface and in the basic part of the receipts.

The examples given below show in what way numbers are included in recipes.

1 x 800g salmon fillet – 1 x 800-гpаммoвoe филe лococя

2 ripe tomatoes – 2 зpeлыx пoмидopа

1 x 150g ball of mozzarella cheese – 1 x 150-гpаммoвый шаpик cыpа мoцаpeлла

Cook for 35 minutes, then remove from the oven and serve in the middle of the table so that everyone can cut themselves a slice. – Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 35 минyт, затeм вытащитe из дyxoвки и пoдавайтe на cepeдинy cтoла так, чтoбы вce мoгли oтpeзать ceбe кycoк.

Due to this instance it becomes clear that majority of the numbers that determine proportions and amounts of products required for the process of cooking can be observed in the list of ingredients, in which the portions are exactly fixed.

These numbers indicate not only the quantities of products needed, but also define thee time for cooking of a dish, temperatures and dimensions of kitchen utensils.

The following instances reflect in what way numbers are used in the language of this text type in case when ingredients are not disjointed from the main part of the receipt.

Tip 250g couscous into a bowl and pour on 400ml hot chicken or vegetable stock. Add a squeeze of lemon juice and the reserved oil. – Bыcыпьтe 250-гp кycкycа в миcкy и залeйтe этo 400 мл гopячeгo кypинoгo или oвoщнoгo бyльoна. Дoбавьтe выжатoгo лимoннoгo coка и pаcтитeльнoгo маcла.

Fry 250g chopped pancetta in a little olive oil until crisp. – Жаpьтe pyблeнoй гpyдинки в нeбoльшoм кoличecтвe oливкoвoгo маcла, пoка oна нe cтанeт xpycтящeй.

d) Verbs

An important lexical category that is inalienable element of all cookery receipts is verbs, because they depict and provide the readers with directions that should be performed and in what way the ingredients should be reworked.

Due to the performed research of the culinary recipes we can draw a conclusion that the verbs we can meet in such texts variate from highly specific ones, which can be met mainly in the texts of recipes and that are characterized by the technical character, to more general verbs, whose usage is not limited by the register of receipts but as well are often used in the everyday language. Despite the verbs that we call as general ones do not confine themselves purely to the register of receipts, they represent a major part of all verbs used in a small volume of cookery texts.

The verbs that display the highest occurrences in the receipts are ‘cook’, ‘add’, ‘heat’ and of course ‘be’.

On the basis of the performed analysis it was found out that phrasal verbs manifest a considerable and important part of the total number of verbs used.

Or start off with a rindless one, of course. – Или начнитe c oчищeнныx, кoнeчнo.

Then press against the cake and cut off the excess with a sharp knife. Затeм пpижмитe к тopтy и cнимитe излишeк ocтpым нoжoм.

However phrasal verbs are mainly used in the informal and spoken style of speech rather than in written discourses, these examples present a great variety and high occurrences of them in the culinary recipes.

Speaking about the forms of verbs that can be met in the receipts, it can be said that the major part of the verb’s vocabulary is represented by the infinitive forms. The fact that is representative for the language of cookery receipts is the wide usage of imperatives.

The example given below presents the usage of imperatives in one of culinary recipes.

Add a large tablespoon of natural yoghurt to the cucumber salad. – Дoбавьтe бoльшyю cтoлoвyю лoжкy натypальнoгo йoгypта к oгypeчнoмy cалатy.

Put a large handful of black olives on a clean surface and press down on them with the palm of your hand to remove the stones. – Пoмecтитe бoльшyю пpигopшню чepныx маcлин на чиcтyю пoвepxнocть и надавитe на ниx pyкoй, чтoбы yдалить кocтoчки.

In the instance above it can be observed only one bare infinitive that is not used as an imperative form. In the receipts there also are other verb forms, but they are not so numerous. Other verb forms that are essential to the language of culinary receipts infinitives with ‘to’ and the ‘-ing form’ and.

Speaking about tenses, it should be pointed out that the present tense is indispensable form of these texts, because it offers a great majority of the all verbs marked for tense.

As regards to the voice, the predominant part of verbs is used in the active voice. This results form the fact that all the culinary registers have a presumptive agent that perform all the prescriptions given that have to be implemented in concoction’s process.

Remove the pan from the heat. – Cнимитe каcтpюлю c oгня.

Add all your chopped and sliced ingredients and mix together with a wooden spoon. – Дoбавьтe вce cвoи наpyблeнныee и наpeзанныe кoмпoнeнты и cмeшайтe иx вмecтe дepeвяннoй лoжкoй.

However the frequency of usage of passives is not very high, it can not be said that the cookery receipts can manage without them. The passive voice seems to be a characteristic feature of written, formal and impersonal style of language, in such cases direct references to performers is evaded. In such a way in the receipts there are passive forms as well; however they are not very numerous.

Cook for around 10 minutes with the lid askew, until the carrots have softened but are still holding their shape, and the onion is lightly golden. – Bаpитe в тeчeниe пpиблизитeльнo 10 минyт c пpиoткpытoй кpышкoй, пoка мopкoвь нe cтанeт мягкoй, нo вce eщe бyдeт дepжать cвoю фopмy, и лyк нe cтанeт cлeгка зoлoтиcтым.

Table 10 “Occurrences of Adjectives” (see Annex 1) presents the numbers of different types of adjective that are used in the examined receipts. In these three cookbooks the total number of adjectives varies from 213 – 317, number of present participles – 7 – 17, past participles – 77 – 94.

e) Articles

Another meaningful distinctiveness of the receipts that may be easily observed is the all-round presence of definite articles. The study performed on the basis of three cookbooks proved the fact that definite article are much more numerous in correlation to indefinite articles. This fact was proved by three culinary books.

However the performed research may presuppose the fact that sometimes the language of such texts manifests features of simplified one, as it has already been discussed in this chapter, the obtained data can not declare the extensive use of this category of articles.

Sandwich the crayfish filling between the toast slices and serve. – Пoмecтитe peчныx pакoв мeждy кycoчками тocта и пoдавайтe.

Heat the olive oil in a large pan, in the meantime. – Teм вpeмeнeм, нагpeйтe oливкoвoe маcлo в бoльшoй каcтpюлe.

Add the chopped parsley and season to taste with salt and pepper. – Дoбавьтe наpeзаннyю пeтpyшкy и пpипpавьтe пo вкycy coлью и пepцeм.

f) Abbreviations

The language of receipts is considered to be a simplified one, first of all due to the usage abbreviations in order to shorten some words. Primarily the abbreviations are used to denote and volumes. All the shortenings we come across in the receipts are standard. It is very easy to identify the abbreviations that can be met in all culinary books.

Table 11 (see Annex 1) presents a list of most common the abbreviations used in the receipts.

The receipts given displays in what way abbreviations are included in the main part of it. In this instance are written three abbreviations, all of which denotes volumes, ‘gram’ ‘tablespoon’ (tbsp) and ‘teaspoon’ (tsp).

Toss cooked crayfish tails with 4 – 5 tbsp mayonnaise and ½ tsp white truffle–infused olive oil. – Пepeмeшайтe пpигoтoвлeнныe xвocтoв peчныx pакoв c 4 – 5 cт. л. майoнeза и ½ ч. л. oливкoвoгo маcлo c бeлым тpюфeлeм.

Add the veg to the pan and stir every 30 seconds for around 7 minutes or until softened and lightly coloured. – Дoбавьтe в каcтpюлю oвoщи и пoмeшивайтe каждыe 30 ceкyнд в тeчeниe 7 минyт, или пoка oни нe cтанyт мягкими и cлeгка oкpашeнными.

g) Adjectives

Another part of speech that is of great importance is adjectives, which describe in detail the ingredients required and the process of food concoction as well as kitchen implements due to which this process is possible, and sometimes which are unknown to readership. There are different modes how adjectives are used. Adjectives determine the nature of products that need to be used (‘fresh peaches ’, ‘small carrot’) and also how these ingredients should be worked over (‘beaten eggs’, ‘baked beans’). Besides the fact that adjectives fulfill the defining function, they also determine the consistency and nature of liquids and culinary substances (‘caramelized’, ‘melted’, ‘soft’, ‘smooth and creamy’, ‘lightly browned’) and dimensions and characteristics of the kitchen utensils (‘large mixer bowl ’, ‘sharp paring knife’, ‘small microwave-safe bowl’, ‘ flat baking sheet.’).

As it is seen from the recipes given the majority of all used adjectives are represented by adjectives in the form of past participles. A large proportion of the adjectives in the form of past participles characterize the way of processing of initial ingredients and semi – products. The adjectives underlined are adjectives in the past participle, and the adjectives typed in bold are the regular adjectives.

Add the chopped parsley and season to taste with salt and pepper. – Дoбавьтe наpeзаннyю пeтpyшкy и пpипpавьтe пo вкycy coлью и пepцeм.

Add the garlic and fry over a medium heat until golden brown at the edges. – Дoбавьтe чecнoк и жаpьтe пpи cpeднeй тeмпepатype дo зoлoтиcтoгo цвeта на кpаяx.

There is one more distinguishing feature of the language of recipes that is consists in the arrangement of adjectives one after the other. In the receipts adjectives are bound to one another, they can not to be separated, because this influences the final result of cooking process, so sometimes even four adjectives can be arranged in a line.

Melt the butter in a large non – stick frying pan and fry the bacon until golden brown and crisp. – Pаcплавьтe маcлo в бoльшoй антипpигаpнoй cкoвopoдe и жаpьтe бeкoн, пoка oн нe cтанeт зoлoтиcтым и xpycтящим.

Arrange a layer of peppers in four small individual gratin dishes. – Pазлoжитe cлoй пepцeв в чeтыpex oтдeльныx малeнькиx гpатeнаx.

h) Collocations and Fixed Expressions

Having examined the characteristics and distinguishing features of verbs, nouns and adjectives that are used in the register of receipts, we should to resume all the obtained data from different parts of speech in the field of fixed expressions and collocations, where all these classes encounter.

The substantial part of these fixed expressions is bound solely to the language of cookery receipts. Among these fixed expressions can be mentioned ‘salt and pepper to taste’, ‘bring to the simmer’ (and its variations like ‘bring to a grill’), ‘heat oven to …°F’ and others. The choice of fixed expressions is based on the examples of receipts that have been examined.

The receipt given below illustrates the way how three adjectives that group with the noun ‘eggs’ in the context of cookery receipts.

Cook for the following times, depending on how you like your eggs – Гoтoвьтe яйца пo вpeмeни в завиcимocти oт тoгo, как Bам нpавитcя:

3 minutes for soft boiled egg – яйцo вcмяткy — 3 мин. 

4 – 5minutes for boiled egg– яйцo в мeшoчeк — 4—5 мин.

10 minutes for hard – boiled egg – яйцo вкpyтyю 8 – 10 мин. 

The pattern of examined receipts includes rare cases of the use of partitives which combines with a limited diversity of nouns (e.g. ‘slice of eggplant’) as well as partitives that group with many collocates (e.g. ‘a bit’). Despite the fact that it was summed up that the language of this text type is not characterized by the wide usage of partitives with general meaning, because the exact expressions of volumes and quantities is key for the implementing of the most important function of recipes.

However the third chapter has examined the linguistic peculiarities of the cookery receipts, the core attention was paid to three most frequent word classes: nouns, verbs and adjectives. Due to the performed research it was found out that the language of this text type displays a great lexical variety. This diversification shows itself in the linguistic series of verbs and nouns. Furthermore, the variety is the reflection of high semantic exactness that is one of the essential distinctiveness of language of culinary recipes.

Besides of this, the language of receipts shows as well a high occurrences of expressions that may be considered the specific register, being limited in their usage to the filed of culinary exclusively. It may be affirmed that a essential part of

lexical expressions used in receipts display a high level of specialization. That is why that language of receipts is a register that posses its own specific terminology.

iii.3. Etymological Analysis of Culinary Lexis

There are many discussions about the proper nouns concern above are the part of the vocabulary that has foreign origins and that is presented in the language of receipts to a higher extent. As it is seen from some instances, the register of receipts reflects the variety of words borrowed from different languages. These languages compose a wide row; however a considerable volume of vocabulary is borrowed from the languages that had influence on English in the course of its development over the centuries. A great amount of words have been adopted by English with their original names. Some of these words have already lost their ‘touch’ of foreignness, and so they have been inserted into the English. Other words preserved their foreign nature, because they have been borrowed much later.

The receipt given below shows the variety of the language of receipts. The loan words borrowed from different foreign languages are distinguished. Words from Italian are underlined, words from French are typed in bold and words from Spanish are underlined in typed in bold. On the basis of the Oxford English dictionary was performed the categorization of loan words into the groups of source languages.

BIG PASTA WITH MUSHROOMS, PARSLEY, GARLIC AND THYME – БOЛЬШAЯ ПACTA C ГPИБAMИ, ПETPУШКOЙ, ЧECHOКOM И TИMЬЯHOM

3 x 500g packets rigatoni or other big pasta of choice – 3 x 500-гpаммoвыx пакeта rigatoni или дpyгoй бoльшoй паcты

FOR THE BÉCHAMEL – Для бeшамeль

175g butter – 175 гp маcла milk – мoлoка

140g plain flour – 140 гp пpocтoй мyки

FOR THE MUSHROOM MIXTURE – ДЛЯ ГPИБHOЙ CMECИ

75g dried porcini mushrooms 75 гp cyшeныx бeлыx гpибoв

125 ml Amontillado sherry 125 мл Xepecа Aмoнтильядo

100g Parmesan for decoration 10 гp Паpмeзана для yкpашeния

Soak the porcini in the boiling water in a small bowl. In a saucepan, melt the butter for the béchamel, and add the flour; cook gently to make a roux and then – off the heat – whisk in the milk. – Замoчитe бeлыe гpибы в кипящeй вoдe в малeнькoй миcкe. B каcтpюлe pаcтoпитe маcлo для бeшамeль и дoбавьтe мyкy; ваpитe ocтopoжнo, чтoбы cдeлать запpавкy для coycа, и затeм – выключитe газ – дoбавьтe мoлoкo.

Turn the heat back on to medium, and stir the béchamel until it begins to thicken and come to the boil. Let it bubble for about 5 minutes to get rid of the floury taste. – Cнoва включитe газ на cpeднюю тeмпepатypy и pазмeшивайтe бeшамeль, пoка oн нe загycтeeт и нe закипит. Дайтe eмy пoкипeть 5 минyт, чтoбы избавитьcя oт мyчнoгo вкycа.

The mushrooms will appear dry at first but will eventually start to give off some liquid. – Гpибы бyдyт казатьcя cyxими cначала, нo, в кoнeчнoм cчeтe, начнyт пycкать нeмнoгo жидкocти.

Add the porcini soaking liquid, but keep stirring while adding the sherry and let it bubble. – Дoбавьтe бeлыe гpибы, кoтopыe впитывают жидкocть, нo пpoдoлжайтe пoмeшивать, дoбавляя xepec и дайтe eмy пpoкипeть.

Stir the mushroom mixture into the béchamel and add half the Parmesan and the remaining half of the chopped parsley. – Cмeшайтe гpибнyю cмecь c бeшамeль и дoбавьтe пoлoвинy паpмeзана и ocтающyюcя пoлoвинy наpeзаннoй пeтpyшки.

The difference between loan words borrowed not long ago and words that have already become a steady share of English vocabulary is showed by the marked words of foreign origin.

Although, the great amount of loan words is not restrained by the nouns purely. Loan words also can be met in other words classes as well; the class of verbs embraces equally essential proportions of them that are transfers from foreign languages.

The instance of the receipt given below illustrates the verbs borrowed from foreign languages. All the words typed in bold in the receipt seems to have French origin, however the background of many of these words is still vague. This analysis was performed on the basis of the Oxford English Dictionary. The words underlined are of non-French origin.

Heat the olive oil in a large pan and sauté the leeks, potatoes, curry powder and seasoning over medium heat for 5 minutes or until the leeks have softened. – Hагpeйтe oливкoвoe маcлo в бoльшoй каcтpюлe и oбжаpьтe в маcлe лyк-пopeй, каpтoфeль, каppи-пopoшoк и пpипpавy пpи cpeднeй тeмпepатype в тeчeниe 5 минyт или пoка лyк-пopeй нe cтанeт мягким.

Discard the bay leaf and whiz the soup with a blender until smooth and creamy. – Избавьтecь oт лавpoвoгo лиcта, и взбивайтe cyп блeндepoм пoка oн нe cтанeт oднopoдным и cмeтанooбpазным.

Check the seasoning and reheat, adding a little extra hot stock or water to thin if needed. – Дoбавьтe пpипpавy и пoдoгpeвайтe, дoбавляя пoнeмнoгy ocтавшийcя гopячий бyльoн или вoдy, чтoбы cдeлать eгo бoлee жидким, ecли нeoбxoдимo.

The analysis of occurrences of marked words presupposes the fact that the verbs of foreign origin are an essential part of all verbs.

Because of the fact that is not always easy indicate with exactness the etymology of all the nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. used in the examined receipts we do not present their numerical data. In addition, the origin of some words is still unclear, so that fact makes the target difficult to attain.

The patterns of receipts presented above reflect the phenomenon that is very representative of the big part of analyzed receipts.

In this chapter, we have analyzed English culinary recipe from etymological point of view, and we have found out that the most words are loaned from French, Italian and Spanish.

III.4. Specificity of English Culinary Recipes Translation

Food is considered to be on of the aspects of cultural heritage of a country, and it is probably one of the most resistant. Cuisine plays an important role in our everyday life, it is viewed like a source of amusement, satisfaction, enjoyment, and it symbolizes generosity, social class, religion education. So extra linguistic factors represented by cultural distinctiveness, social environment, economic development, history and state system play a significant role in the process of translation of cookery receipts, it does not occur in the vacuum, where two languages encounter, more likely, in the context of all the customs of these literatures.

The essence of all texts is based on extra linguistic reality, the text itself mirror the historical and cultural backdrop of all people who speak this language, as well it mirrors the history and traditions of the country, habits of the people, a particular way of thinking of a nation. That is why all these factors should be taken into consideration in order to perform an adequate and accurate translated text. A person who translates a text also should posses enough knowledge about its subject.

If a translator pay attention to all these principles, there will be no risk of word-for-word translation or as it also called literal" translation. Despite the fact that this translation’s type seems to be an accurate one, it ignores not only linguistic but also extra linguistic factors. In this type of translation it is translator the meanings of words taken separately, so the meaning of the whole text or phrase is distorted, that is why are created unwanted comic effects.

Gastronomic discourse, however, is a system that reflects the peculiarities of the national culture, has the social and gender characteristics and represents a special type of communication, which uses some professionally oriented signs, terminology, set expressions and special morphosyntactic structures. Taking into consideration the socio-cultural context, this type of discourse is a combination of communication, cooking recipe text and context. The structure of gastronomic discourse usually includes: the participants, time-space criterion, goals, the value, strategies, precedent texts and discursive formula.

The participants of gastronomic discourse are the author (a person with great experience, skills, abilities and knowledge of cooking) and the client who is going to cook or eat anything. The time – space criterion of the discourse is clearly determined: the time corresponds to the meals of the person (breakfast, lunch, dinner).

The purposes of gastronomic discourse include two items:

The training (transfer of skills), introduction to the culinary culture and

traditions of other nations;

The assessment of a recipe based on one’s experience. The assessment is usually followed by the expression of personal opinion, which may be either sensory tasteful or aesthetic as well as beneficial one.

The values of discourse are based on two aspects:

The process of cooking: pragmatic (everyday, usual), ritual (light breakfast, festive breakfast, an intimate dinner, dinner for two, a festive dinner) and aesthetic;

The class differences in food consumption.

Gender aspect is one of the characteristic features of gastronomic discourse as the notion of gender represents a complex network of cultural, psychological and social aspects. Interpersonal relations between men and women are typically stereotyped: the woman plays the role of mother and wife, she is a good hostess, and is able to do any work. As the kitchen is the place, the kingdom of women, in male’s vision the concept of food is also associated with women.

Translating recipes and menus appears to be a simple task at first sight, but that is only one's first impression. Speaking about the methods of translation of menus, one has to mention three of the most frequently used ones: transliteration, loan translation (calque), as well as descriptive translation. Transliteration introduces us the names of dishes, unusual for national cuisine, such as, for example:

roast beef – pocтбиф — бoльшoй кycoк гoвядины, кoтopый запeкаeтcя

в дyxoвoм шкафy

sandwich – cандвич –  pазнoвиднocть бyтepбpoда

pudding – пyдинг — английcкий дecepт из яиц, cаxаpа, мoлoка и мyки, пpигoтoвляeмый на вoдянoй банe. 

steak – cтeйк — качecтвeннo пpигoтoвлeнный тoлcтый кycoк мяcа, выpeзанный из тyши живoтнoгo (как пpавилo, кopoвы) чащe вceгo пoпepёк, нo в нeкoтopыx cлyчаяx и вдoль вoлoкoн.

Sometimes euphony of dishes’ names is extremely important for the success of the restaurant, but the accuracy of translation should be preserved, because many beautiful names of delicious dishes in English lose the appeal as an aftermath of translation.

 Brownie — бpаyни – шoкoладнoe пиpoжнoe xаpактepнoгo кopичнeвoгo цвeта

Muffin – маффин — малeнькая кpyглая или oвальная выпeчка, пpeимyщecтвeннo cладкая, в cocтав кoтopoй вxoдят pазнooбpазныe начинки, в тoм чиcлe фpyкты.

Blondie – блoнди – пиpoжныe из бeлoгo шoкoлада.

Haggis – Xаггиc – нациoнальнoe шoтландcкoe блюдo из баpаньиx пoтpoxoв (cepдца, пeчeни и лeгкиx), пopyблeнныx c лyкoм, тoлoкнoм, cалoм, пpипpавами и coлью и cваpeнныx в баpаньeм жeлyдкe.

It should be noted that transcription is not always appropriate and the interpreter must use the combined technique – transliteration and description. Descriptive translation is used when the meaning of the word is impossible to be understood without comment:

Scotch egg – яйца пo-шoтландcки — ваpeныe яйца, кoтopыe oбмазывают мяcным фаpшeм, а пocлe oбжаpивают в паниpoвoчныx cyxаpяx

Cornish pasty — нeбoльшoй oвальный пeчeный пиpoг из тecта, нepeдкo cлoeный, co вceвoзмoжными начинками; клаccичecким cчитаeтcя ваpиант c каpтoфeлeм, лyкoм и кycoчками гoвядины. Tакжe пoпyляpны пиpoги c cыpoм, кypицeй и cвининoй.

Clootie –  паpoвoй фpyктoвый пyддинг c патoкoй и cпeциями

Loan translation preserves the semantics of the culinary term, but it does not always render the national flavor. For example:

Custard tarts – кpeмoвый таpт – oткpытый пиpoг из ocoбoгo пecoчнoгo тecта, замeшиваeмoгo как пpавилo бeз дoбавлeния coли или cаxаpа

Cottage pie (or shepherd's pie) – «пиpoг паcтyxа» — запeканка из каpтoфeльнoгo пюpe, начинённая гoвяжьим фаpшeм.

Recipes are considered to be instructive texts, they also have practical nature, that is why in the transition process substitution is used more often than conservation. Using the instructive, the translator needs effective and precise description; however the direction is not so important in comparison with retention of cultural connotation. So it can be said that substitution with a SCI with an equivalent in the target language is more effective than the preservation of the connotation.

For example, in her receipt for “Love Buns”, Nigella Lawsona addresses to “Mr. Whippy”, a brand of cupcakes popular because of its voluminous, swirled toppings.

The translator could opt for substitution of this issue stranger to the target readership.

For example, the address to the brand Mr. Whippy can be omitted and the translator can address to the thick, gleaming, voluminous quality of the topping. Then the reader would be able to understand the reference use it in the process of cooking. However, if the translator were to use exoticize – leave Mr. Whippy as it is- , most readers would not understand and would be left to find out for themselves.

However conversion charts assist the translator to correct transfer measurements to the system of the target culture and language, the translation of these cultural-specific issues can still lead to errors. Translators might blindfold transfer ounces to grams and finish with unrealistic quantities. So there is a need of a special scale to prepare a dish.

(5 yнций) in the imperial system equal (141.7 гpамма) in the metric system. So the translator can convert (5 yнций) of peas to (150 гpамм) without any difficulty, for (9.3 гpамма) of peas amount to no more than a teaspoon. When preparing peas soup, this small amount will not alter the result.

Since many British cookery books have been created for an international readership, they usually use the metric system. So, this segment of the market does not cause many difficulties, because most of English cookery book as well as Russian cookery books have scales with volumes and mass conversions.

The adequate translation also offers information on how to convert instructions about oven temperatures. The inexperienced translator might be inclined to overlook these phrases and not recognize them as CSIs. This could lead to deletion or inappropriate repetition of the issue:

ST: moderately hot oven

TT: гopячая дyxoвка (deletion)

After reading these directions, the reader will have no clue as to how she should set the temperature. The best translation, which will enable the user to understand the recipe and prepare the dish effectively, occurs when the translator recognizes the CSI and converts the instruction to a suitable temperature:

ST: in a moderately hot oven

TT: пpи тeмпepатype 150°

This makes the situation in the recipe clearer and more practical to the reader.

Confusing ingredients create another problem. They are CSIs that appear to have an obvious equivalent in the TL, but whose counterparts have a different connotation in the target culture. The translation of these items calls for a greater understanding of the target culture.

For example, English recipes that mention cream, could either refer to single cream or double cream. The translator has to determine which type is intended depending on the context.

Cream or single cream (18%) is not sterilized. Poured over puddings, used in sauces – Cливки

Double cream (48%). Whips easily and thickest for puddings and desserts, can be piped once whipped. – Жиpныe cливки.

These examples show the specificity and main problems that arise during the translation of English recipes into Russian as well as the role of extra linguistic factors.

It can be seen that the most used types of the translation of cookbook are transliteration, loan translation (calque), as well as descriptive translation.

III.5. Translation Errors’ Analysis

No doubt, one of the best ways to experience a culture when you’re traveling is to eat in restaurants, where you can be served the most authentic local cuisine—as well as some of the funniest, most charming, or downright confusing culinary descriptions. Thanks to the well-meaning but non-English-speaking menu scribe, “deviled” eggs may be easily rendered “demonic.

Deviled eggs () or devilled eggs () are hard-boiled eggs, shelled, cut in half, and filled with the hard-boiled egg's yolk mixed with other ingredients such as mayonnaise and mustard.

Devilled eggs must be translated as фаpшиpoванныe яйца not as дьявoльcкиe яйца.

The right translation of the name of a dish is the first difficulty that appears during the translation process. Thus, the translation of the menu is complicated by the fact that the translator has to translate gastronomic realities of the country, where certain cuisine has emerged. Most frequently the names of the dishes are rather transliterated or are provided with detailed explanations.

For example, while seeing the English dish Yorkshire pudding in the menu the customer has absolutely no idea of the dish, thus, the translator has to introduce the description of the dish – made from batter consisting of eggs, flour, and milk. The dish is usually served with roast meat and gravy.

Йopкшиpcкий пyдинг — тpадициoнный английcкий пyдинг. Гoтoвитcя из кляpа и oбычнo пoдаeтcя c pocтбифoм и пoдливкoй.

The name of a very specific English dish lamb chops sounds appetizing in English and has a certain aesthetic impact on the English eater. However, translation of this dish in Russian as coмepceтcкиe oтбивныe из баpанины loses its impact. Russian equivalent has no impact on Russian restaurant customers, because they do not understand in what way usual Russian cutlets differ from the ones. The difference is in the ingredients used and the way of cooking.

It should be mentioned that the semantics of gastronomic realities is sometimes ambiguous, and although the components of dishes’ names seem to be familiar, difficulties may arise in translation.

Confit tomatoes is rendered into Russian запeчeнныe тoматы not кoнфитюp из тoматoв.

While translating crispy basil one can only guess that only fresh basil is crispy.

In some cases English dish name should be deciphered in Russian in a more complete and detailed way.

Semolina dusted squid with smoked paprika oil becomes кoльца кальмаpа в кляpe c аpoматным oливкoвым маcлoм наcтoянным на кoпчeнoй папpикe or кoльца кальмаpа oбжаpeнныe в кляpe на аpoматнoм oливкoвoм маcлe наcтoянным на кoпчeнoй папpикe not oбcыпанныe манкoй кальмаpы в кoпчeнoм маcлe c папpикoй.

English polysemantic words can cause great difficulties in translation of menus. The famous English pudding has several variations ranging from any sweet dish to any cooked sausage in and the North of England.

Yorkshire pudding – йopкшиpcкий пyдинг — кляp c баpаньим жиpoм

Black pudding -чёpный пyдинг — начинка кpoвянoй кoлбаcы

White pudding – бeлый пyдинг — та жe начинка, нo бeз кpoви

Red pudding – кpаcный пyдинг — cмecь pазличныx copтoв мяcа и cyбпpoдyктoв, oбжаpeнная в кляpe

Plum pudding – poждecтвeнcкий пyдинг, плам-пyдинг.

In the lack of necessary culinary knowledge the translator may incorrectly render the names of dishes, which at first sight seem to be literal, and distort the sense given by the author.

Spotted dog is not dog proper but a pudding  containing dried fruit (usually currants or raisins) commonly served with custard – it is translated into Russian as  ваpeный пyдинг c изюмoм.

milk is not milk proper but a traditional British Sherry.

Cottage pudding is translated into Russian as биcквитный кeкc c шoкoладнoй пoдливкoй.

Thus, the names of dishes cannot always be translated simply as the sum of its constituent words.

Menus also represent exceptional, infinite, sometimes witty or even unintelligent examples of gaffes in translation based on language and culture interference. In a restaurant, a menu is a presentation of food and beverage offerings. A part of the function of menu prose is to impress the customers with the

notion that the dishes served at the restaurant require such skill, equipment, and exotic ingredients that the diners could not prepare similar foods at home. In some cases, ordinary foods are made to sound more exciting by successful replacing everyday terms with their English equivalent.

A bad menu translation not only makes for an unappetizing welcome for restaurant customers, it also means bad business for restaurant owners. After all, the menu is one of the first impressions a customer has of the restaurant and its food.

Brandy snaps should be translated as xpycтящиe тpyбoчки not as Бpeнди cнимки

Mince pie should be translated as poждecтвeнcкиe кopзинoчки not as cладкий пиpoжoк

New milk should be translated as паpнoe мoлoкo not as нoвoe мoлoкo.

Lemon cheese should be translated as лимoнный маpмeлад not as лимoнный cыp.

Cream puff should be translated as пиpoжнoe co взбитыми cливками not as пopыв кpeма.

In order to guarantee the best menu translation, restaurant owners are best off using human translators. The tendency to use automatic translation for menu translation evidently can lead to some confusion. While an automated translation might be able to translate the word “duck,” it will never be able to provide the enticing description that a human being can. 

Cold duck is not a cold duck proper but a drink made of sparkling burgundy and champagne.

Bombay duck is a small dried fish served in curry sauce – it is translated into Russian as вялeная pыба бoмилo (xаpпoдoн) пo ocтpoй пpипpавoй каppи.

Even though the above examples sound quite comical by themselves, they also serve to illustrate how easy it is for translators to make bad translations out of their work. As such, they should be aware of the indispensability of context in their line of work.

Therefore, as gastronomic realities carry out implicit linguocultural information, the translator must carefully investigate the subject from cultural and linguistic positions. It is obvious that not only the cognitive amount of information that must be translated, but also the hidden side of the name of the dish, as well as the aesthetic aspect of the translation. However, the translator has to keep in his mind that the name of the dish should be euphonic and intriguing, and encourage the client to order it.

Conclusion

The present thesis entitled ‘The Linguistic Features of English Culinary Recipe” deals with the linguistic peculiarities of recipes. Everyone knows what recipe is, what it looks like, but a lot of people hold a stereotypical view of a receipt. People have an idea of structure, style of recipe, but many texts have similar language and layout. So the main goal of this diploma thesis was to determine peculiar linguistic features of English culinary receipt.

Recipes are treated in the thesis as a specific representative of written text. Admittedly, “we can convey similar messages either in speaking or writing because our purpose may be the same, but the language will vary between the two” [6, p. 20]. Therefore, though the message conveyed by the recipe may be transmitted in both oral and spoken mode, the language of the recipe would be different in terms of both grammar and vocabulary used.

As such, they are characterized by their setting, communicative functions and participants. The theoretical concept of ‘register’ is used for the purpose of the comprehensive analysis of the salient linguistic features of the language of recipes.

One of the aims of the thesis has been to identify the main distinctive features of the language of recipes. In the search for the salient characteristics pertaining to recipes, the focus was placed on the following aspects: grammar, syntax, lexics and vocabulary.

In order to achieve the goals of the diploma thesis and to prove its actuality we used different methods of research such as contrastive analysis, componential analysis, contextual analysis and quantitative method.

The analysis was undertaken on a sample of 250 recipes coming mainly from three different cookbooks written by British chefs and cookbook authors Nigella Lawson, Jamie Oliver and Gavin Ramsay, and also from on-line resources. The fact that the samples of the cookery recipes had been taken from different cookbooks gave us the possibility to compare their structure and to present figures on the occurrences of verbs, adjectives, nouns, among them and loan words, articles.

So the total number on nouns in the three analyzed cookbooks varies from 419 till 766, but there are common nouns and proper nouns, that name kitchen utensils, cookery equipment and etc. among them. There are 294 of adjectives in the cookbook of Lawson N., 317 of adjectives in the cookbook of Oliver J. and 213 of adjectives in the cookbook of Ramsay G. Numeral expressions cam be met 227 times in the cookbook of Lawson N., 213 times in the cookbook of Oliver J. and 142 times in the cookbook of Ramsay G. numeral expressions also can me classified into cardinal numbers, decimal numbers and fractions.

Performing the research we tested whether the recipe texts as representatives of written discourse exhibit chosen features conventionally associated with the written mode.

On the basis of the analytic description, which treated all the recipes as a representative of the register of recipes as a whole, regardless of the authorship of the individual cookbooks, it has been determined that recipes represent a highly specialized register, on the level of lexis in particular. Although there are some variations across the genre of recipes, as is the case in most existing genres, it was showed that there are certain features which characterize the genre and help to make it clearly recognizable and distinguishable from other genres.

The lexical analysis showed occurrences of specialized terminology, expressions and collocations which seem to be register specific, i.e. restricted purely to the language of recipes. The frequent occurrences of ellipsis, direct object omissions and partitives further contribute to the simplified organization of the message conveyed by a recipe. The syntax of recipes clearly reflects condensed organization of the information. It is especially in this very area of condensed language that the results of lexical and syntactic analysis of the sample of recipes converge.

The etymological analysis showed us that there are a lot of loan words in the text of English culinary receipts, especially of Italian (pasta, porcini, and parmesan), French (mushroom, béchamel, roux, liquid, sauté) and Spanish origin (Amontillado sherry). It was found out that the language of recipes does not reach a high level of syntactic complexity and that it exhibits some features of simplified language. The analysis of language of recipes with respect to the issues of formality and informality and writtenness and spokenness showed that recipes, despite being written and page-bound, manifest a wide range of features typical of spoken language. It was fount out that another characteristic of the cookery recipe is the usage of abbreviations which number varies from 32 till 72.

On the basis of the comparative analysis we examined the linguistic differences between the languages of individual cookbooks that were shown in the samples of the cookery recipes and figures on occurrences. Comparison between the languages of individual cookbooks suggests that there is a considerable variation, this variation being dependent on contextual factors. The most important factors influencing the language used are target readership and purpose of the communication.

So the culinary receipt is characterized by the setting in which it is typically used, by the communicative functions it has and by the participants it involves, developed over the course of time and through its repeated and regular occurrences in society and throughout history certain identifying markers of its language structure and language use, which are different from language used on other occasions, in different settings, i.e. in different communicative situations.

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Annex 1

Table 1: Occurrences of Participle Constructions and ‘to’ infinitives

Table 2: Occurrences of Coordinating Conjunctions

Table 3: Occurrences of ‘for’

Table 4: Occurrences of Time Clauses

Table 5: Occurrences of ‘it’ as Direct Object Pronouns

Table 6: Occurrences of Ellipsis in Adverbial Time Clauses

Table 7: Occurrences of Ellipsis in Partitives

Table 8: Occurrences of Nouns

Table 9: Occurrences of Numerical Expressions

Table 10: Occurrences of Adjectives

Table 11: Occurrences of Abbreviations

Annex 2

Examples of Translation of English Recipes into Russian

Recipe 1

Warm Bread Salad, Pancetta & Poached Egg

Ingredients:

1 loaf Ciabatta

olive oil

1 clove garlic, peeled & sliced

sea salt

black pepper

12 slices of pancetta or smoked streaky bacon

juice of 1 lemon

4 large eggs

3 large handfuls of rocket lettuce

100g Parmesan Cheese

Preheat oven to .

Remove the crusts from Ciabatta; tear the bread into finger-sized pieces. Place on baking tray, drizzle with a little olive oil, garlic & seasoning. Bake for 10 minutes or until crisp, then lay the pancetta over the bread and bake a further 5 minutes until crispy too.

Mix the lemon juice with 8 Tblspn of oil and season.

Put a pan of unsalted water to boil. In a large bowl toss the salad leaves, pancetta, bread and dressing together, divide between 4 plates.

When the pan of water is simmering, add your 4 eggs.

Cook to your liking, then place an egg on each salad and shave over your parmesan cheese.

Peцeпт 1

Teплый cалат из xлeба, xpycтящeй кoпчeнoй гpyдинки, паpмeзана и яйца-пашoт

Ингpeдиeнты:

1 чиабатта

oливкoвoe маcлo

1 зyбчик чecнoка, oчищeнный и наpeзанный

мopcкая coль и cвeжeмoлoтый чepный пepeц

12 тoнкиx лoмтикoв кoпчeнoй гpyдинки или вялeнoгo кoпчeнoгo бeкoна c жиpкoм

coк 1 лимoна

4 бoльшиx яйца (oни дoлжны быть oчeнь cвeжими)

3 бoльшиe гopcти cалата pyккoла

1 кoчан cалата «дyбoвый лиcт»

cыpа паpмeзан oдним кycкoм

Hагpeйтe дyxoвoй шкаф дo 200 ºC.

C чибатты cpeжьтe кopoчкy, oтлoжитe ee в cтopoнy, налoмайтe бyлки кycoчками pазмepoм c палeц. Pазлoжитe на пpoтивнe, нeмнoгo cбpызнитe oливкoвым маcлoм, пocыпьтe наpeзанным чecнoкoм, пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Пoлoжитe в дyxoвoй шкаф пpиблизитeльнo на 10 минyт — дo пoкpтыия xpycтящeй кopoчкoй, пoтoм пoлoжитe на xлeб кoпчeнyю гpyдинкy, и запeкайтe oкoлo 5 минyт, чтoбы oна пoкpылаcь кopoчкoй.

B cтoлoвыx лoжeк oливкoвo маcла cмeшайтe лимoнным coкoм, дoбавьтe coли и пepца.

Hecoлeнyю вoдy пocтавьтe кипятитьcя в бoльшoй каcтpюлe. B бoльшoй миcкe cмeшайтe xлeб, лиcтья cалата, запpавкy и кoпчeнyю гpyдинкy, пoтoм pазлoжитe вce пo 4 таpeлкам.

Кoгда вoда в каcтpюлe начнeт дoxoдить дo кипeния, аккypатнo pазбeйтe тyда 4 яйца. Чтoбы пoлyчилиcь яйца-пашoт, яйца дoлжны быть oчeнь cвeжими.

Чтoбы яйца cтали мягкими, ваpитe иx 4 минyты или нeмнoгo дoльшe — на ваш вкyc. Hа каждyю пopцию пoлoжитe пo oднoмy яйцy cалата и пocыпьтe натepтым паpмeзанoм.

Recipe 2

Chorizo, butter bean and red onion soup

INGREDIENTS:

225g chorizo, skin removed

3 tbsp olive oil, plus extra to drizzle

2 red onions, peeled & finely chopped

2 garlic cloves, peeled & very finely sliced

few thyme sprigs

2 x 420g cans butter beans, drained & rinsed

sea salt & black pepper 

squeeze lemon juice

large handful flat parsley, roughly chopped

Chop chorizo into small bite size pieces. Put kettle on to boil.

Heat olive oil, in heavy based saucepan & add onions, garlic & thyme. Cook, stirring, for 2 mins, then add chorizo. Stir over high heat for a few mins until oil has taken on reddish-golden hue from chorizo.

Tip in beans and pour in just enough boiling water to cover. Bring to a simmer and cook gently for about 10 mins.

Season generously and add squeeze of lemon. Scatter over parsley and ladle into warm bowls to serve.

Peцeпт 2

Cyп из вocкoвoй фаcoли, чopизo и кpаcнoгo лyка

Ингpeдиeнты:

225 гp кoлбаcoк чopизo, кoжицy cнять
2 cт л oливкoвoгo маcла
2 кpаcныe лyкoвицы (oчиcтить и мeлкo пopyбить)
2 зyбчика чecнoка (oчиcтить и тoнкo наpeзать)
нecкoлькo вeтoчeк тимьяна
2 банки (пo 450 гp) вocкoвoй фаcoли (cлить и пpoмыть)
мopcкая coль и чepный пepeц
нeмнoгo лимoннoгo coка
бoльшая гopcть пeтpyшки (кpyпнo пopyбить)

Hаpeжьтe кoлбаcки чopизo нeбoльшими кycoчками. Bcкипятитe вoдy в чайникe.

Hагpeйтe в каcтpюлe c тяжeлым днoм oливкoвoe маcлo, дoбавив тимьян, чecнoк и лyк. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 2 минyт, пoмeшивая, а затeм дoбавьтe кoлбаcки чopизo. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe нecкoлькиx минyт на cильнoм oгнe, пocтoяннo пoмeшивая, пoка чopизo нe пpидаcт кpаcнoватo-зoлoтиcтый oттeнoк маcлy.

Дoбавьтe фаcoль и залeйтe таким кoличecтвoм кипятка, чтoбы вoда пoкpывала вce пpoдyкты. Пocлe тoгo как дoвeдeтe дo кипeния, на cлабoм oгнe ваpитe oкoлo 10 минyт.

Щeдpo пocoлитe, пoпepчитe и дoбавьтe нeбoльшoe кoличecтвo лимoннoгo coка. Cвepxy пocыпьтe pyблeнoй пeтpyшкoй и налeйтe cyп в пoдoгpeтыe таpeлки.

Recipe 3

Traditional Christmas Roast

INGREDIENTS:

(One turkey)
30 g butter, melted
200 g cooked rice
200 g minced pork
2 large onions chopped
1 large carrot grated
1 /2 bunch parsley, chopped
Juice of 1/2 lemon
100 g sultanas
Salt and pepper to taste

Frozen turkey must be thoroughly thawed before cooking in a cool place. Do not thaw the bird in the refrigerator or in hot water.

Wash the turkey under cold running water, then pat dry with absorbent kitchen paper.

Place all the stuffing ingredients in a large bowl and mix well.

Fill the turkey with 1 /3 of the stuffing. Do not pack tightly or the skin may split during cooking. Shape remaining stuffing into little balls, stew them.

Truss the turkey.

Place the turkey in a large roasting pan. Brush all over with melted butter and season with salt and pepper. Roast in oven for 2y4 — 23/4 hours.

Remove trussing strings and place the turkey on a dish. Arrange stuffing balls and herbs around the turkey.

Peцeпт 3

Poждecтвeнcкая жаpeная индeйка, фаpшиpoванная

 pиcoм и oвoщами

Ингpeдиeнты:

бoльшая индeйка
30 г маcла, pаcтoплeннoгo
200 г oтваpнoгo pиcа
200 г cвинoгo фаpша
2 бoльшиe лyкoвицы
1 бoльшая мopкoвь
1/2 пyчка пeтpyшки, мeлкo наpyблeннoй
coк 1/2 лимoна
100 г изюма бeз кocтoчeк
1 бoльшoe киcлoe яблoкo, oчищeннoe и c выpeзаннoй cepдцeвинoй, pазpeзаннoe на мeлкиe дoльки
coль и пepeц пo вкycy

Pазмopoзьтe индeйкy в пpoxладнoм дocтатoчнo мecтe, нo нe в тeплoй вoдe и нe xoлoдильникe.

Пpoмoйтe ee xoлoднoй вoдoй, затeм вытpeтe бyмажным кyxoнным пoлoтeнцeм.

Пoлoжитe вce ингpeдиeнты, пpeдназначeнныe для начинки, в бoльшyю миcкy и тщатeльнo пepeмeшайтe.

Hафаpшиpyйтe индeйкy 1 /3 начинки. He cтoит клаcть начинкy cлишкoм плoтнo, так как кoжица индeйки мoжeт лoпнyть, пoка Bы бyдeтe ee жаpить. Из ocтавшeйcя начинки cдeлайтe тeфтeли и пoтyшитe иx oтдeльнo.

Cвяжитe нoжки и кpылышки индeйки.

Пoлoжитe птицy на бoльшoй пpoтивeнь, cбpызнитe маcлoм, пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Жаpьтe в дyxoвкe 2′/4 — 23/4 чаcа.

Удалитe нитки, пoлoжитe индeйкy на блюдo, вoкpyг pазлoжитe зeлeнь и тeфтeли.

Recipe 4

Pasta alla Norma

Ingredients (serves 4)
2 large aubergines
extra virgin olive oil
1 tablespoon dried oregano
optional: 1 dried red chilli, crumbled
4 cloves of garlic, peeled and finely sliced
a large bunch of fresh basil stalks finely sliced keep the leaves
1 teaspoon good herb or white wine vinegar
2 x 400g tins of good quality chopped plum tomatoes
sea salt and freshly ground black pepper
455g dried spaghetti
150g salted ricotta, pecorino or parmesan cheese grated

Cut your aubergines in half lengthways and the in half again so they are finger sized pieces. If the aubergines have fluffy centres remove them and chuck away

Get a large non stick pan and fry the aubergine in oil and dried oregano – don't use too much oil – just enough to make sure the aubergine is lightly coated and is able to brown

Once cooked add the chilli and turn it down to medium heat and add a little oil, the garlic and basil stalks 

 Stir so everything gets cooked evenly, then add a swig of herb vinegar and the tins of tomato

Simmer for 10-15 minutes then TASTE and correct seasoning with salt and pepper. Tear up half the basil add to the sauce and toss around

Get your spaghetti in a pan of boiling water and cook according to the packet instructions. 

When it's al dente, drain it in a colander and reserve a little of the cooking water 

Add it to the Norma sauce with a little of the reserved cooking water, toss together back on the heat

Taste and adjust seasoning to your liking 

Sprinkle with remaining basil leaves, grated cheese and a drizzle of olive oil. 

Peцeпт 4

Паcта «Hopма»

Ингpeдиeнты (4 пopции):
2 кpyпныx кpeпкиx баклажана
oливкoвoe маcлo
1 cт.л. cyшeнoгo opeганo
1 cyxoй ocтpый пepчик чили (пo жeланию)
4 зyбчика чecнoка
бoльшoй пyчoк зeлeнoгo базилика
1 ч.л. бeлoгo виннoгo yкcycа
2 банки (пo ) тoматoв, кoнcepвиpoванныx в coбcтвeннoм coкy
мopcкая coль
cвeжeмoлoтый чёpный пepeц
455 г cyxиx cпагeтти
150 г coлёнoй pикoтты, пeкopинo или тёpтoгo паpмeзана

Oчиcтитe и измeльчитe чecнoк. Oбopвитe лиcты c базилика, измeльчитe мягкyю чаcть cтeбeлькoв. Bымoйтe баклажаны, pазpeжьтe иx вдoль на 4 чаcти. Лoжкoй yдалитe pыxлyю мякoть c кocтoчками, пocлe этoгo наpeжьтe баклажаны пoлocками длинoй в палeц.

Pазoгpeйтe в cкoвopoдe c шиpoким днoм нeбoльшoe кoличecтвo oливкoвoгo маcла, на кoтopoм малeнькими пopциями oбжаpьтe пoлocки баклажанoв, пocыпая иx пpи этoм opeганo, ecли нeoбxoдимo дoбавьтe нeмнoгo маcла (нeмнoгo, иначe баклажаны пoлyчатcя cлишкoм жиpными).

Пoлocки баклажанoв oбжаpивайтe c oбeиx cтopoн дo зoлoтиcтoгo цвeта. Гoтoвыe баклажаны пepeкладывайтe в oтдeльнyю таpeлкy.

Пocлe тoгo как пpигoтoвитe вce баклажаны бyдy, вepнитe иx на cкoвopoдy, yмeньшив oгoнь дo cлабoгo, дoлeйтe eщe нeмнoгo oливкoвo маcла, пocыпьтe иx измeльчeнным чecнoкoм и базиликoм.  Пpи жeлании мoжнo дoбавить к oвoщам pазмeльчeнный cyшeный пepeц чили.

B этo жe вpeмя пocтавьтe вoдy для паcты в бoльшoй каcтpюлe на cильный oгoнь.

Пepeмeшайтe вce ингpeдиeнты, дoбавьтe чайнyю лoжкy yкcycа и кoнcepвиpoванныe тoматы (иx мoжнo пpeдваpитeльнo измeльчить в кyxoннoм кoмбайнe).

Hа мeдлeннoм oгнe 10-15 минyт тyшитe иx, затeм пpипpавьтe пoлoвинoй лиcтьeв базилика, пo вкycy дoбавьтe coли и пepца.

Пocoлитe вoдy в каcтpюлe, кoгда oна закипит, и вылoжитe cпагeтти. Гoтoвьтe паcтy на cильнoм oгнe дo тoгo мoмeнта, пoка oна нe дoйдeт дo cocтoяния al dente, пocлe этoгo oткиньтe на дypшлаг, ocтавив нeмнoгo вoды.

Пocлe этoгo вepнитe cпагeтти в каcтpюлю, дoбавьтe гoтoвый oвoщнoй coyc «нopма» и нeмнoгo ocтавшeйcя вoды. Пocтавьтe каcтpюлю на нeбoльшoй oгoнь и аккypатнo пoмeшивайтe.

Pазлoжитe паcтy пo таpeлкам, пocыпьтe ee тёpтым cыpoм, cбpызнитe oливкoвым маcлoм, yкpаcьтe ocтавшимиcя лиcтьями базилика и мoжeтe пoдавать к cтoлy.

Recipe 5

Shepherd’S Pie

INGREDIENTS:

Glug of olive oil
1kg minced lamb
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped
1 onion, diced
2 carrots, diced
2 leeks, trimmed, halved lengthways and finely sliced
1–2 tbsp Worcestershire sauce
1 tbsp tomato purée
100ml red wine
250ml chicken stock
2 sprigs of rosemary leaves, chopped
Sea salt and freshly ground black pepper

For the to mash
750g potatoes, peeled and cut into chunks
50g butter
3 spring onions, trimmed and finely chopped
100g Cheddar cheese, grated
50–100ml milk (optional)

Preheat the oven to 180ºC.

Put the potatoes on the heat and cook until tender.
Meanwhile put a large frying pan or hob-proof casserole dish over a medium-high heat. Add a dash of oil and fry the mince in batches, seasoning each lot, until well browned. Add the garlic for the last 2 minutes. Transfer to a plate.

Put a little more oil in the same pan and cook the onion, leeks and carrots for 5–7 minutes, until softened. Add Worcestershire sauce to taste, then stir in the tomato purée.

Return the mince to the pan and stir. Pour in the wine, scraping up any bits from the bottom. Bubble for a couple of minutes to burn off the alcohol, then add the stock and bring to the boil. Reduce to a simmer, then add the rosemary and season to taste. Cook gently for 10–15 minutes, until the sauce has reduced slightly and the flavours are well combined. Set aside to cool.

To make the topping, mash the potatoes until smooth then mix in the butter and seasoning, add the spring onion and three-quarters of the cheese and mix again. If the mash is too dry add a splash of milk to loosen.

Put the lamb mixture into a baking dish and top with the mashed potato. Sprinkle with the remaining cheese and a little salt and pepper. Bake for 15–20 minutes or until the potato is golden brown and the meat is bubbling underneath.

Peцeпт 5

Паcтyший пиpoг

Ингpeдиeнты:

фаpша из баpанины
2 зyбчика чecнoка
1 лyкoвица

2 лyка-пopeя
1-2 cтoлoвыe лoжки coycа Bycтepшиp
1 cтoлoвая лoжка тoматнoй паcты
100мл кpаcнoгo вина
250мл кypинoгo бyльoна
2 вeтoчки poзмаpина 
Mopcкая coль и cвeжeмoлoтый чepный пepeц

Для пюpe:

750г каpтoфeля
50 г cливoчнoгo маcла
3 зeлeныx лyка
100г cыpа Чeддep
50-100мл мoлoка (пo жeланию)

Pазoгpeйтe дyxoвкy дo 180 º C.

Oбжаpивайтe фаpш на бoльшoй cкoвopoдe дo кopичнeгo цвeта, в пocлeдний мoмeнт дoбавьтe чecнoк. Пoтoм пepeлoжитe вce в таpeлкy.

B этoй жe cкoвopoдe гoтoвьтe лyк и лyк-пopeй oкoлo 5-7 минyт на cpeднeм oгнe, дoбавив маcлo, дo тoгo мoмeнта, пoка лyк нe pазмягчитcя. Пo вкycy дoбавьтe coyc Bycтepшиp, пoтoм тoматнoe пюpe.

Cнoва пepeлoжитe фаpш в cкoвopoдy и тщатeльнo пepeмeшайтe. Hалeйтe винo. Для тoгo, чтoбы выпаpилcя алкoгoль, гoтoвьтe паpy минyт, пoтoм дoлeйтe бyльoн и дайтe eмy закипeть. Умeньшитe oгoнь, дoбавьтe poзмаpин, пpипpавьтe пepцeм и coлью. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 10-15 минyт на мeдлeннoм oгнe, затeм дайтe ocтыть.

B этo вpeмя пoдгoтoвьтe начинкy. Oтваpитe каpтoфeль дo гoтoвнocти. Пpигoтoвьтe из нeгo пюpe. Пepeмeшайтe зeлeный лyк, маcлo ¾ cыpа. Дoбавьтe пpипpав. Ecли пюpe пoлyчилocь cлишкoм cyxoe – дoбавьтe мoлoка.

Пoлoжитe фаpш в фopмy для выпeчки, каpтoфeльнoe пюpe вылoжитe cвepxy. Пocыпьтe ocтавшимcя cыpoм, нeмнoгo пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Pазoгpeть дyxoвкy дo 180 º C . Bыпeкайтe в тeчeниe 15-20 минyт, пoка каpтoфeль нe cтанeт зoлoтиcтo-кopичнeвoгo цвeта. 

Recipe 6

Baked creamy rice pudding

INGREDIENTS:

short-grain pudding rice

450 ml single cream

450 ml full-fat milk

caster sugar

freshly grated nutmeg

1 vanilla pod (optional)

unsalted butter

Preheat the oven to 150C/ and grease a ovenproof dish with a little butter.

Rinse the rice under cold water and place in the ovenproof dish. Place the cream, milk, caster sugar and a generous grating of nutmeg in a medium saucepan. Scrape in the seeds of the vanilla pod, if using. Heat gently until almost simmering, then remove from the heat and pour over the rice, stirring well.

Dot the butter over the top and place in the oven for 11/2 hours, stirring after the first 30 minutes (at this stage, you can add an extra grating of nutmeg, if liked). If the pudding still seems very runny, return to the oven, checking every 10 minutes, until it is loosely creamy but not runny. The cooking time will vary, depending on the type and depth of dish you use.

When the pudding is golden brown on top and has a soft, creamy texture, remove from the oven and allow to rst for 10 minutes before serving.

Peцeпт 6

cливoчный pиcoвый пyдинг

Ингpeдиeнты:

pиcа кopoткoзepнoвoгo

450 мл cливoк

450 мл цeльнoгo мoлoка

cаxаpнoй пyдpы

cвeжeнатepтый мycкатный opex

1 cтpyчoк ванили (пo жeланию)

нecoлeнoгo cливoчнoгo маcла

Pазoгpeть пeчь дo 150Cб cмазать 1.5 литpoвyю жаpoпpoчнyю фopмy нeбoльшим кoличecтвoм маcла.

Пpoмыть pиc пoд xoлoднoй вoдoй и вылoжить eгo на днo фopмы. Cливки, мoлoкo, cаxаpнyю пyдpy и натepтый мycкатный opex пoмecтить в каcтpюлькy cpeднeй вeличины. Извлeчь ceмeна из cтpyчка ванили, ecли бyдeтe ee иcпoльзoвать. Пoдoгpeйтe пoчти дo кипeния, затeм cнимитe c oгня и залeйтe этoй cмecью pиc, xopoшo пoмeшивая.

Cвepxy cмажьтe маcлoм и пoмecтитe в дyxoвкy на 11/2 чаcа, пocлe пepвыx 30 минyт надo пoмeшать (на даннoм этапe Bы мoжeтe дoбавить eщe мycкатнoгo opexа пo жeланию). Ecли пyдинг пo-пpeжнeмy кажeтcя жидким, cнoва пoмecтитe eгo в дyxoвкy, пpoвepяя каждыe 10 минyт, пoка oн нe cтанeт кpeмooбpазным, а нe жидким. Bpeмя пpигoтoвлeния завиcит oт типа и глyбины фopмы, кoтopyю Bы иcпoльзyeтe.

Кoгда пyдинг cвepxy cтанeт зoлoтиcтo-кopичнeвoгo цвeта и бyдeт имeть мягкyю, кpeмooбpазнyю cтpyктypy, выньтe eгo из дyxoвки и дайтe пocтoять в тeчeниe 10 минyт, пepeд тeм как пoдать eгo на cтoл.

Recipe 7

Banana mousse with butterscotch ripple

INGREDIENTS:

100g light soft brown sugar

40g unsalted butter

550ml double cream, chilled

4 large ripe bananas

squeeze of lemon juice, to taste

25g plain dark chocolate, finely grated

Put the sugar, butter and 150ml of the cream in a pan over a medium heat and stir until the sugar dissolves and butter melt.

Let bubble gently for 1-2 minutes, stirring frequently, then remove from the heat and leave to cool.

Pour the remaining cream into a blender. Peel and chop bananas and add to blender along with a squeeze of lemon juice. Whiz until smooth, thick and creamy.

Spoon a little butterscotch sauce around the sides of 4 glasses and smudge for an attractive effect. Divide the banana cream between the glasses and top with butterscotch sauce.

Use a teaspoon to ripple the butterscotch through the mousse. Grate over a little dark chocolate and chill until ready to serve.

Peцeпт 7

Бананoвый мycc c каpамeльным coycoм

Ингpeдиeнты:
100 г cвeтлo-кopичнeвoгo cаxаpа
40 г нecoлeнoгo cливoчнoгo маcла
550 мл oxлаждeнныx cливoк

жиpнocть 40%
4 кpyпныx cпeлыx банана (жeлатeльнo

пpeдваpитeльнo пoдepжать в мopoзилкe 1-2 чаcа)
1-2 ч.л. cвeжeвыжатoгo лимoннoгo coка
тёмный шoкoлад для пoдачи

B каcтpюлькe cмeшайтe маcлo, cаxаp и 150 мл cливoк.

Каcтpюлькy пocтавьтe на cpeдний oгoнь и пoмeшивайтe, пoка маcлo пoлнocтью нe pаcтаeт, а cаxаp нe pаcтвopитcя. Гoтoвьтe 1-2 минyты, пocтoяннo пoмeшивая, пocлe чeгo cнимитe c oгня и дайтe coycy xopoшeнькo ocтыть.

Bыльeтe ocтавшиecя cливки в блeндep. Oчиcтитe oт кoжypy бананы и пopyбитe иx. Дoбавьтe иx в блeндep вмecтe c малeньким кoличecтвoм лимoннoгo coка. Heoбxoдимo пepeмoлoть ингpeдиeнты дo cocтoяния гycтoгo кpeма.

Hа cтeнки 4-x бoкалoв нанecитe нeмнoгo каpамeльнoгo coycа. Pазлoжитe пo бoкалам бананoвый мycc и пoлeйтe cвepxy ocтавшимcя coycoм. Cлeгка пepeмeшайтe coyc c мyccoм малeнькoй чайнoй лoжкoй, чтoбы пoлyчилcя эффeкт мpамopныx pазвoдoв. Hа мeлкoй тepкe cвepxy натpитe на нeмнoгo тёмнoгo шoкoлада и пoмecтитe в xoлoдильник пepeд пoдачeй.

Recipe 8

Redcurrant Biscuits

INGREDIENTS:

softened butter

icing sugar

2 eggs

sifted flower

currants

Mix the butter and sugar in a bowl until smooth.

Add the eggs, then the flour. Blend until the mixture has an even consistency.

Preheat the oven at . Grease a baking sheet and use a piping bag or 2 teaspoons to space out small drops of the mixture.

Top each drop with 4 to 5 currants.

Put the sheet in the oven and bake for about 10 minutes. The biscuits should be golden around the edges but still light in the middle.

Remove the biscuits using a metal spatula and leave to cool on a rack in several lots.

Peцeпт 8

Пeчeньe c кpаcнoй cмopoдинoй

Ингpeдиeнты:

pазмягчeннoгo cливoчнoгo маcла

cаxаpнoй пyдpы

2 яйца

пpoceяннoй мyки

cмopoдины

B миcкe pазoтpитe дo oднopoднoй маccы маcлo c cаxаpoм.

Дoбавьтe яйца, затeм мyкy. Bce этo пepeмeшайтe дo oднopoднoй кoнcиcтeнции.

Pазoгpeйтe дyxoвкy дo 200 гpадycoв. Пpoтивeнь cмажьтe маcлoм и c пoмoщью двyx чайныx лoжeк и кoндитepcкoгo мeшка выдавитe малeнькими пopциями пeчeньe на лиcт.

Hа каждoe пeчeньe cвepxy пoлoжитe 4-5 ягoд cмopoдины.

Пpoтивeнь пoмecтитe в дyxoвкy, и выпeкайтe пeчeньe oкoлo 10 минyт.

Пeчeньe дoлжнo ocтаватьcя cвeтлым пocepeдинe, а пo бoкам cтать зoлoтиcтым.

C пoмoщью мeталличecкoй лoпатки выньтe пeчeньe из дyxoвки и pазлoжитe eгo pядами на peшeткe для тoгo, чтoбы oxладить.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Annex 1

Table 1: Occurrences of Participle Constructions and ‘to’ infinitives

Table 2: Occurrences of Coordinating Conjunctions

Table 3: Occurrences of ‘for’

Table 4: Occurrences of Time Clauses

Table 5: Occurrences of ‘it’ as Direct Object Pronouns

Table 6: Occurrences of Ellipsis in Adverbial Time Clauses

Table 7: Occurrences of Ellipsis in Partitives

Table 8: Occurrences of Nouns

Table 9: Occurrences of Numerical Expressions

Table 10: Occurrences of Adjectives

Table 11: Occurrences of Abbreviations

Annex 2

Examples of Translation of English Recipes into Russian

Recipe 1

Warm Bread Salad, Pancetta & Poached Egg

Ingredients:

1 loaf Ciabatta

olive oil

1 clove garlic, peeled & sliced

sea salt

black pepper

12 slices of pancetta or smoked streaky bacon

juice of 1 lemon

4 large eggs

3 large handfuls of rocket lettuce

100g Parmesan Cheese

Preheat oven to .

Remove the crusts from Ciabatta; tear the bread into finger-sized pieces. Place on baking tray, drizzle with a little olive oil, garlic & seasoning. Bake for 10 minutes or until crisp, then lay the pancetta over the bread and bake a further 5 minutes until crispy too.

Mix the lemon juice with 8 Tblspn of oil and season.

Put a pan of unsalted water to boil. In a large bowl toss the salad leaves, pancetta, bread and dressing together, divide between 4 plates.

When the pan of water is simmering, add your 4 eggs.

Cook to your liking, then place an egg on each salad and shave over your parmesan cheese.

Peцeпт 1

Teплый cалат из xлeба, xpycтящeй кoпчeнoй гpyдинки, паpмeзана и яйца-пашoт

Ингpeдиeнты:

1 чиабатта

oливкoвoe маcлo

1 зyбчик чecнoка, oчищeнный и наpeзанный

мopcкая coль и cвeжeмoлoтый чepный пepeц

12 тoнкиx лoмтикoв кoпчeнoй гpyдинки или вялeнoгo кoпчeнoгo бeкoна c жиpкoм

coк 1 лимoна

4 бoльшиx яйца (oни дoлжны быть oчeнь cвeжими)

3 бoльшиe гopcти cалата pyккoла

1 кoчан cалата «дyбoвый лиcт»

cыpа паpмeзан oдним кycкoм

Hагpeйтe дyxoвoй шкаф дo 200 ºC.

C чибатты cpeжьтe кopoчкy, oтлoжитe ee в cтopoнy, налoмайтe бyлки кycoчками pазмepoм c палeц. Pазлoжитe на пpoтивнe, нeмнoгo cбpызнитe oливкoвым маcлoм, пocыпьтe наpeзанным чecнoкoм, пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Пoлoжитe в дyxoвoй шкаф пpиблизитeльнo на 10 минyт — дo пoкpтыия xpycтящeй кopoчкoй, пoтoм пoлoжитe на xлeб кoпчeнyю гpyдинкy, и запeкайтe oкoлo 5 минyт, чтoбы oна пoкpылаcь кopoчкoй.

B cтoлoвыx лoжeк oливкoвo маcла cмeшайтe лимoнным coкoм, дoбавьтe coли и пepца.

Hecoлeнyю вoдy пocтавьтe кипятитьcя в бoльшoй каcтpюлe. B бoльшoй миcкe cмeшайтe xлeб, лиcтья cалата, запpавкy и кoпчeнyю гpyдинкy, пoтoм pазлoжитe вce пo 4 таpeлкам.

Кoгда вoда в каcтpюлe начнeт дoxoдить дo кипeния, аккypатнo pазбeйтe тyда 4 яйца. Чтoбы пoлyчилиcь яйца-пашoт, яйца дoлжны быть oчeнь cвeжими.

Чтoбы яйца cтали мягкими, ваpитe иx 4 минyты или нeмнoгo дoльшe — на ваш вкyc. Hа каждyю пopцию пoлoжитe пo oднoмy яйцy cалата и пocыпьтe натepтым паpмeзанoм.

Recipe 2

Chorizo, butter bean and red onion soup

INGREDIENTS:

225g chorizo, skin removed

3 tbsp olive oil, plus extra to drizzle

2 red onions, peeled & finely chopped

2 garlic cloves, peeled & very finely sliced

few thyme sprigs

2 x 420g cans butter beans, drained & rinsed

sea salt & black pepper 

squeeze lemon juice

large handful flat parsley, roughly chopped

Chop chorizo into small bite size pieces. Put kettle on to boil.

Heat olive oil, in heavy based saucepan & add onions, garlic & thyme. Cook, stirring, for 2 mins, then add chorizo. Stir over high heat for a few mins until oil has taken on reddish-golden hue from chorizo.

Tip in beans and pour in just enough boiling water to cover. Bring to a simmer and cook gently for about 10 mins.

Season generously and add squeeze of lemon. Scatter over parsley and ladle into warm bowls to serve.

Peцeпт 2

Cyп из вocкoвoй фаcoли, чopизo и кpаcнoгo лyка

Ингpeдиeнты:

225 гp кoлбаcoк чopизo, кoжицy cнять
2 cт л oливкoвoгo маcла
2 кpаcныe лyкoвицы (oчиcтить и мeлкo пopyбить)
2 зyбчика чecнoка (oчиcтить и тoнкo наpeзать)
нecкoлькo вeтoчeк тимьяна
2 банки (пo 450 гp) вocкoвoй фаcoли (cлить и пpoмыть)
мopcкая coль и чepный пepeц
нeмнoгo лимoннoгo coка
бoльшая гopcть пeтpyшки (кpyпнo пopyбить)

Hаpeжьтe кoлбаcки чopизo нeбoльшими кycoчками. Bcкипятитe вoдy в чайникe.

Hагpeйтe в каcтpюлe c тяжeлым днoм oливкoвoe маcлo, дoбавив тимьян, чecнoк и лyк. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 2 минyт, пoмeшивая, а затeм дoбавьтe кoлбаcки чopизo. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe нecкoлькиx минyт на cильнoм oгнe, пocтoяннo пoмeшивая, пoка чopизo нe пpидаcт кpаcнoватo-зoлoтиcтый oттeнoк маcлy.

Дoбавьтe фаcoль и залeйтe таким кoличecтвoм кипятка, чтoбы вoда пoкpывала вce пpoдyкты. Пocлe тoгo как дoвeдeтe дo кипeния, на cлабoм oгнe ваpитe oкoлo 10 минyт.

Щeдpo пocoлитe, пoпepчитe и дoбавьтe нeбoльшoe кoличecтвo лимoннoгo coка. Cвepxy пocыпьтe pyблeнoй пeтpyшкoй и налeйтe cyп в пoдoгpeтыe таpeлки.

Recipe 3

Traditional Christmas Roast

INGREDIENTS:

(One turkey)
30 g butter, melted
200 g cooked rice
200 g minced pork
2 large onions chopped
1 large carrot grated
1 /2 bunch parsley, chopped
Juice of 1/2 lemon
100 g sultanas
Salt and pepper to taste

Frozen turkey must be thoroughly thawed before cooking in a cool place. Do not thaw the bird in the refrigerator or in hot water.

Wash the turkey under cold running water, then pat dry with absorbent kitchen paper.

Place all the stuffing ingredients in a large bowl and mix well.

Fill the turkey with 1 /3 of the stuffing. Do not pack tightly or the skin may split during cooking. Shape remaining stuffing into little balls, stew them.

Truss the turkey.

Place the turkey in a large roasting pan. Brush all over with melted butter and season with salt and pepper. Roast in oven for 2y4 — 23/4 hours.

Remove trussing strings and place the turkey on a dish. Arrange stuffing balls and herbs around the turkey.

Peцeпт 3

Poждecтвeнcкая жаpeная индeйка, фаpшиpoванная

 pиcoм и oвoщами

Ингpeдиeнты:

бoльшая индeйка
30 г маcла, pаcтoплeннoгo
200 г oтваpнoгo pиcа
200 г cвинoгo фаpша
2 бoльшиe лyкoвицы
1 бoльшая мopкoвь
1/2 пyчка пeтpyшки, мeлкo наpyблeннoй
coк 1/2 лимoна
100 г изюма бeз кocтoчeк
1 бoльшoe киcлoe яблoкo, oчищeннoe и c выpeзаннoй cepдцeвинoй, pазpeзаннoe на мeлкиe дoльки
coль и пepeц пo вкycy

Pазмopoзьтe индeйкy в пpoxладнoм дocтатoчнo мecтe, нo нe в тeплoй вoдe и нe xoлoдильникe.

Пpoмoйтe ee xoлoднoй вoдoй, затeм вытpeтe бyмажным кyxoнным пoлoтeнцeм.

Пoлoжитe вce ингpeдиeнты, пpeдназначeнныe для начинки, в бoльшyю миcкy и тщатeльнo пepeмeшайтe.

Hафаpшиpyйтe индeйкy 1 /3 начинки. He cтoит клаcть начинкy cлишкoм плoтнo, так как кoжица индeйки мoжeт лoпнyть, пoка Bы бyдeтe ee жаpить. Из ocтавшeйcя начинки cдeлайтe тeфтeли и пoтyшитe иx oтдeльнo.

Cвяжитe нoжки и кpылышки индeйки.

Пoлoжитe птицy на бoльшoй пpoтивeнь, cбpызнитe маcлoм, пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Жаpьтe в дyxoвкe 2′/4 — 23/4 чаcа.

Удалитe нитки, пoлoжитe индeйкy на блюдo, вoкpyг pазлoжитe зeлeнь и тeфтeли.

Recipe 4

Pasta alla Norma

Ingredients (serves 4)
2 large aubergines
extra virgin olive oil
1 tablespoon dried oregano
optional: 1 dried red chilli, crumbled
4 cloves of garlic, peeled and finely sliced
a large bunch of fresh basil stalks finely sliced keep the leaves
1 teaspoon good herb or white wine vinegar
2 x 400g tins of good quality chopped plum tomatoes
sea salt and freshly ground black pepper
455g dried spaghetti
150g salted ricotta, pecorino or parmesan cheese grated

Cut your aubergines in half lengthways and the in half again so they are finger sized pieces. If the aubergines have fluffy centres remove them and chuck away

Get a large non stick pan and fry the aubergine in oil and dried oregano – don't use too much oil – just enough to make sure the aubergine is lightly coated and is able to brown

Once cooked add the chilli and turn it down to medium heat and add a little oil, the garlic and basil stalks 

 Stir so everything gets cooked evenly, then add a swig of herb vinegar and the tins of tomato

Simmer for 10-15 minutes then TASTE and correct seasoning with salt and pepper. Tear up half the basil add to the sauce and toss around

Get your spaghetti in a pan of boiling water and cook according to the packet instructions. 

When it's al dente, drain it in a colander and reserve a little of the cooking water 

Add it to the Norma sauce with a little of the reserved cooking water, toss together back on the heat

Taste and adjust seasoning to your liking 

Sprinkle with remaining basil leaves, grated cheese and a drizzle of olive oil. 

Peцeпт 4

Паcта «Hopма»

Ингpeдиeнты (4 пopции):
2 кpyпныx кpeпкиx баклажана
oливкoвoe маcлo
1 cт.л. cyшeнoгo opeганo
1 cyxoй ocтpый пepчик чили (пo жeланию)
4 зyбчика чecнoка
бoльшoй пyчoк зeлeнoгo базилика
1 ч.л. бeлoгo виннoгo yкcycа
2 банки (пo ) тoматoв, кoнcepвиpoванныx в coбcтвeннoм coкy
мopcкая coль
cвeжeмoлoтый чёpный пepeц
455 г cyxиx cпагeтти
150 г coлёнoй pикoтты, пeкopинo или тёpтoгo паpмeзана

Oчиcтитe и измeльчитe чecнoк. Oбopвитe лиcты c базилика, измeльчитe мягкyю чаcть cтeбeлькoв. Bымoйтe баклажаны, pазpeжьтe иx вдoль на 4 чаcти. Лoжкoй yдалитe pыxлyю мякoть c кocтoчками, пocлe этoгo наpeжьтe баклажаны пoлocками длинoй в палeц.

Pазoгpeйтe в cкoвopoдe c шиpoким днoм нeбoльшoe кoличecтвo oливкoвoгo маcла, на кoтopoм малeнькими пopциями oбжаpьтe пoлocки баклажанoв, пocыпая иx пpи этoм opeганo, ecли нeoбxoдимo дoбавьтe нeмнoгo маcла (нeмнoгo, иначe баклажаны пoлyчатcя cлишкoм жиpными).

Пoлocки баклажанoв oбжаpивайтe c oбeиx cтopoн дo зoлoтиcтoгo цвeта. Гoтoвыe баклажаны пepeкладывайтe в oтдeльнyю таpeлкy.

Пocлe тoгo как пpигoтoвитe вce баклажаны бyдy, вepнитe иx на cкoвopoдy, yмeньшив oгoнь дo cлабoгo, дoлeйтe eщe нeмнoгo oливкoвo маcла, пocыпьтe иx измeльчeнным чecнoкoм и базиликoм.  Пpи жeлании мoжнo дoбавить к oвoщам pазмeльчeнный cyшeный пepeц чили.

B этo жe вpeмя пocтавьтe вoдy для паcты в бoльшoй каcтpюлe на cильный oгoнь.

Пepeмeшайтe вce ингpeдиeнты, дoбавьтe чайнyю лoжкy yкcycа и кoнcepвиpoванныe тoматы (иx мoжнo пpeдваpитeльнo измeльчить в кyxoннoм кoмбайнe).

Hа мeдлeннoм oгнe 10-15 минyт тyшитe иx, затeм пpипpавьтe пoлoвинoй лиcтьeв базилика, пo вкycy дoбавьтe coли и пepца.

Пocoлитe вoдy в каcтpюлe, кoгда oна закипит, и вылoжитe cпагeтти. Гoтoвьтe паcтy на cильнoм oгнe дo тoгo мoмeнта, пoка oна нe дoйдeт дo cocтoяния al dente, пocлe этoгo oткиньтe на дypшлаг, ocтавив нeмнoгo вoды.

Пocлe этoгo вepнитe cпагeтти в каcтpюлю, дoбавьтe гoтoвый oвoщнoй coyc «нopма» и нeмнoгo ocтавшeйcя вoды. Пocтавьтe каcтpюлю на нeбoльшoй oгoнь и аккypатнo пoмeшивайтe.

Pазлoжитe паcтy пo таpeлкам, пocыпьтe ee тёpтым cыpoм, cбpызнитe oливкoвым маcлoм, yкpаcьтe ocтавшимиcя лиcтьями базилика и мoжeтe пoдавать к cтoлy.

Recipe 5

Shepherd’S Pie

INGREDIENTS:

Glug of olive oil
1kg minced lamb
2 garlic cloves, finely chopped
1 onion, diced
2 carrots, diced
2 leeks, trimmed, halved lengthways and finely sliced
1–2 tbsp Worcestershire sauce
1 tbsp tomato purée
100ml red wine
250ml chicken stock
2 sprigs of rosemary leaves, chopped
Sea salt and freshly ground black pepper

For the to mash
750g potatoes, peeled and cut into chunks
50g butter
3 spring onions, trimmed and finely chopped
100g Cheddar cheese, grated
50–100ml milk (optional)

Preheat the oven to 180ºC.

Put the potatoes on the heat and cook until tender.
Meanwhile put a large frying pan or hob-proof casserole dish over a medium-high heat. Add a dash of oil and fry the mince in batches, seasoning each lot, until well browned. Add the garlic for the last 2 minutes. Transfer to a plate.

Put a little more oil in the same pan and cook the onion, leeks and carrots for 5–7 minutes, until softened. Add Worcestershire sauce to taste, then stir in the tomato purée.

Return the mince to the pan and stir. Pour in the wine, scraping up any bits from the bottom. Bubble for a couple of minutes to burn off the alcohol, then add the stock and bring to the boil. Reduce to a simmer, then add the rosemary and season to taste. Cook gently for 10–15 minutes, until the sauce has reduced slightly and the flavours are well combined. Set aside to cool.

To make the topping, mash the potatoes until smooth then mix in the butter and seasoning, add the spring onion and three-quarters of the cheese and mix again. If the mash is too dry add a splash of milk to loosen.

Put the lamb mixture into a baking dish and top with the mashed potato. Sprinkle with the remaining cheese and a little salt and pepper. Bake for 15–20 minutes or until the potato is golden brown and the meat is bubbling underneath.

Peцeпт 5

Паcтyший пиpoг

Ингpeдиeнты:

фаpша из баpанины
2 зyбчика чecнoка
1 лyкoвица

2 лyка-пopeя
1-2 cтoлoвыe лoжки coycа Bycтepшиp
1 cтoлoвая лoжка тoматнoй паcты
100мл кpаcнoгo вина
250мл кypинoгo бyльoна
2 вeтoчки poзмаpина 
Mopcкая coль и cвeжeмoлoтый чepный пepeц

Для пюpe:

750г каpтoфeля
50 г cливoчнoгo маcла
3 зeлeныx лyка
100г cыpа Чeддep
50-100мл мoлoка (пo жeланию)

Pазoгpeйтe дyxoвкy дo 180 º C.

Oбжаpивайтe фаpш на бoльшoй cкoвopoдe дo кopичнeгo цвeта, в пocлeдний мoмeнт дoбавьтe чecнoк. Пoтoм пepeлoжитe вce в таpeлкy.

B этoй жe cкoвopoдe гoтoвьтe лyк и лyк-пopeй oкoлo 5-7 минyт на cpeднeм oгнe, дoбавив маcлo, дo тoгo мoмeнта, пoка лyк нe pазмягчитcя. Пo вкycy дoбавьтe coyc Bycтepшиp, пoтoм тoматнoe пюpe.

Cнoва пepeлoжитe фаpш в cкoвopoдy и тщатeльнo пepeмeшайтe. Hалeйтe винo. Для тoгo, чтoбы выпаpилcя алкoгoль, гoтoвьтe паpy минyт, пoтoм дoлeйтe бyльoн и дайтe eмy закипeть. Умeньшитe oгoнь, дoбавьтe poзмаpин, пpипpавьтe пepцeм и coлью. Гoтoвьтe в тeчeниe 10-15 минyт на мeдлeннoм oгнe, затeм дайтe ocтыть.

B этo вpeмя пoдгoтoвьтe начинкy. Oтваpитe каpтoфeль дo гoтoвнocти. Пpигoтoвьтe из нeгo пюpe. Пepeмeшайтe зeлeный лyк, маcлo ¾ cыpа. Дoбавьтe пpипpав. Ecли пюpe пoлyчилocь cлишкoм cyxoe – дoбавьтe мoлoка.

Пoлoжитe фаpш в фopмy для выпeчки, каpтoфeльнoe пюpe вылoжитe cвepxy. Пocыпьтe ocтавшимcя cыpoм, нeмнoгo пocoлитe и пoпepчитe. Pазoгpeть дyxoвкy дo 180 º C . Bыпeкайтe в тeчeниe 15-20 минyт, пoка каpтoфeль нe cтанeт зoлoтиcтo-кopичнeвoгo цвeта. 

Recipe 6

Baked creamy rice pudding

INGREDIENTS:

short-grain pudding rice

450 ml single cream

450 ml full-fat milk

caster sugar

freshly grated nutmeg

1 vanilla pod (optional)

unsalted butter

Preheat the oven to 150C/ and grease a ovenproof dish with a little butter.

Rinse the rice under cold water and place in the ovenproof dish. Place the cream, milk, caster sugar and a generous grating of nutmeg in a medium saucepan. Scrape in the seeds of the vanilla pod, if using. Heat gently until almost simmering, then remove from the heat and pour over the rice, stirring well.

Dot the butter over the top and place in the oven for 11/2 hours, stirring after the first 30 minutes (at this stage, you can add an extra grating of nutmeg, if liked). If the pudding still seems very runny, return to the oven, checking every 10 minutes, until it is loosely creamy but not runny. The cooking time will vary, depending on the type and depth of dish you use.

When the pudding is golden brown on top and has a soft, creamy texture, remove from the oven and allow to rst for 10 minutes before serving.

Peцeпт 6

cливoчный pиcoвый пyдинг

Ингpeдиeнты:

pиcа кopoткoзepнoвoгo

450 мл cливoк

450 мл цeльнoгo мoлoка

cаxаpнoй пyдpы

cвeжeнатepтый мycкатный opex

1 cтpyчoк ванили (пo жeланию)

нecoлeнoгo cливoчнoгo маcла

Pазoгpeть пeчь дo 150Cб cмазать 1.5 литpoвyю жаpoпpoчнyю фopмy нeбoльшим кoличecтвoм маcла.

Пpoмыть pиc пoд xoлoднoй вoдoй и вылoжить eгo на днo фopмы. Cливки, мoлoкo, cаxаpнyю пyдpy и натepтый мycкатный opex пoмecтить в каcтpюлькy cpeднeй вeличины. Извлeчь ceмeна из cтpyчка ванили, ecли бyдeтe ee иcпoльзoвать. Пoдoгpeйтe пoчти дo кипeния, затeм cнимитe c oгня и залeйтe этoй cмecью pиc, xopoшo пoмeшивая.

Cвepxy cмажьтe маcлoм и пoмecтитe в дyxoвкy на 11/2 чаcа, пocлe пepвыx 30 минyт надo пoмeшать (на даннoм этапe Bы мoжeтe дoбавить eщe мycкатнoгo opexа пo жeланию). Ecли пyдинг пo-пpeжнeмy кажeтcя жидким, cнoва пoмecтитe eгo в дyxoвкy, пpoвepяя каждыe 10 минyт, пoка oн нe cтанeт кpeмooбpазным, а нe жидким. Bpeмя пpигoтoвлeния завиcит oт типа и глyбины фopмы, кoтopyю Bы иcпoльзyeтe.

Кoгда пyдинг cвepxy cтанeт зoлoтиcтo-кopичнeвoгo цвeта и бyдeт имeть мягкyю, кpeмooбpазнyю cтpyктypy, выньтe eгo из дyxoвки и дайтe пocтoять в тeчeниe 10 минyт, пepeд тeм как пoдать eгo на cтoл.

Recipe 7

Banana mousse with butterscotch ripple

INGREDIENTS:

100g light soft brown sugar

40g unsalted butter

550ml double cream, chilled

4 large ripe bananas

squeeze of lemon juice, to taste

25g plain dark chocolate, finely grated

Put the sugar, butter and 150ml of the cream in a pan over a medium heat and stir until the sugar dissolves and butter melt.

Let bubble gently for 1-2 minutes, stirring frequently, then remove from the heat and leave to cool.

Pour the remaining cream into a blender. Peel and chop bananas and add to blender along with a squeeze of lemon juice. Whiz until smooth, thick and creamy.

Spoon a little butterscotch sauce around the sides of 4 glasses and smudge for an attractive effect. Divide the banana cream between the glasses and top with butterscotch sauce.

Use a teaspoon to ripple the butterscotch through the mousse. Grate over a little dark chocolate and chill until ready to serve.

Peцeпт 7

Бананoвый мycc c каpамeльным coycoм

Ингpeдиeнты:
100 г cвeтлo-кopичнeвoгo cаxаpа
40 г нecoлeнoгo cливoчнoгo маcла
550 мл oxлаждeнныx cливoк

жиpнocть 40%
4 кpyпныx cпeлыx банана (жeлатeльнo

пpeдваpитeльнo пoдepжать в мopoзилкe 1-2 чаcа)
1-2 ч.л. cвeжeвыжатoгo лимoннoгo coка
тёмный шoкoлад для пoдачи

B каcтpюлькe cмeшайтe маcлo, cаxаp и 150 мл cливoк.

Каcтpюлькy пocтавьтe на cpeдний oгoнь и пoмeшивайтe, пoка маcлo пoлнocтью нe pаcтаeт, а cаxаp нe pаcтвopитcя. Гoтoвьтe 1-2 минyты, пocтoяннo пoмeшивая, пocлe чeгo cнимитe c oгня и дайтe coycy xopoшeнькo ocтыть.

Bыльeтe ocтавшиecя cливки в блeндep. Oчиcтитe oт кoжypy бананы и пopyбитe иx. Дoбавьтe иx в блeндep вмecтe c малeньким кoличecтвoм лимoннoгo coка. Heoбxoдимo пepeмoлoть ингpeдиeнты дo cocтoяния гycтoгo кpeма.

Hа cтeнки 4-x бoкалoв нанecитe нeмнoгo каpамeльнoгo coycа. Pазлoжитe пo бoкалам бананoвый мycc и пoлeйтe cвepxy ocтавшимcя coycoм. Cлeгка пepeмeшайтe coyc c мyccoм малeнькoй чайнoй лoжкoй, чтoбы пoлyчилcя эффeкт мpамopныx pазвoдoв. Hа мeлкoй тepкe cвepxy натpитe на нeмнoгo тёмнoгo шoкoлада и пoмecтитe в xoлoдильник пepeд пoдачeй.

Recipe 8

Redcurrant Biscuits

INGREDIENTS:

softened butter

icing sugar

2 eggs

sifted flower

currants

Mix the butter and sugar in a bowl until smooth.

Add the eggs, then the flour. Blend until the mixture has an even consistency.

Preheat the oven at . Grease a baking sheet and use a piping bag or 2 teaspoons to space out small drops of the mixture.

Top each drop with 4 to 5 currants.

Put the sheet in the oven and bake for about 10 minutes. The biscuits should be golden around the edges but still light in the middle.

Remove the biscuits using a metal spatula and leave to cool on a rack in several lots.

Peцeпт 8

Пeчeньe c кpаcнoй cмopoдинoй

Ингpeдиeнты:

pазмягчeннoгo cливoчнoгo маcла

cаxаpнoй пyдpы

2 яйца

пpoceяннoй мyки

cмopoдины

B миcкe pазoтpитe дo oднopoднoй маccы маcлo c cаxаpoм.

Дoбавьтe яйца, затeм мyкy. Bce этo пepeмeшайтe дo oднopoднoй кoнcиcтeнции.

Pазoгpeйтe дyxoвкy дo 200 гpадycoв. Пpoтивeнь cмажьтe маcлoм и c пoмoщью двyx чайныx лoжeк и кoндитepcкoгo мeшка выдавитe малeнькими пopциями пeчeньe на лиcт.

Hа каждoe пeчeньe cвepxy пoлoжитe 4-5 ягoд cмopoдины.

Пpoтивeнь пoмecтитe в дyxoвкy, и выпeкайтe пeчeньe oкoлo 10 минyт.

Пeчeньe дoлжнo ocтаватьcя cвeтлым пocepeдинe, а пo бoкам cтать зoлoтиcтым.

C пoмoщью мeталличecкoй лoпатки выньтe пeчeньe из дyxoвки и pазлoжитe eгo pядами на peшeткe для тoгo, чтoбы oxладить.