Dificultatile Semantice în Procesul de Traducere a Unitatilor Terminologice

PROIECT DE LICENȚĂ

Dificultățile semantice în procesul de traducere a unităților terminologice (studiu de caz)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

I. SEMANTIC DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY-RELATED TERMS TRANSLATION

I.1. Equivalents in translation

I.2. The connotations of translated words

I.3. Specialized words or words bound to the context

II. A PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TERMINOLOGY

II.1 Samples of historical texts translation

II.2 Empirical analysis of historical texts and terminology

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANNEX

INTRODUCTION

The period from the 15-th of November till the 15-th of December 2014, was assigned as the timeline of my translation practice. Thus I held my translation practice during one month, i.e. twenty working days, whereby I completed 150 hours allotted by the university’s syllabus for the III-rd year translation practice.

As the Faculty of History and International Relations needed a translator to help with certain documentation related to international projects which were held in Moldova and co-organized by the Free International University of Moldova, and, implicitly by the aforementioned faculty. Thus, I was asked by Mrs. Tihonov Ludmila, a Ph.D. in history and associate professor at the Chair of Political Sciences and International Relations to assist them with translations.

In this way Mrs. Tihonov has become the supervisor of my translation practice, and she was in duty to check my work, my attendance, as well as answering to all the requirements related to the good translation of the documents.

I was glad that the practice was to be held at Free International University of Moldova, because here I have all my teaching staff and I could ask for help anytime a problem related to the translation of certain words or idioms occurred. Moreover, FIUM is a place I know well and this gave me a bit more confidence in my work of translation.

From the very first day when I began to hold my translation practice, i.e. on the 15-th of November 2014, I met with my practice supervisor, Mrs. Tihonov Ludmila who was very kind to me to explain my basic duties relating to work schedule according to which, I had to be daily present at my job place at 8.00 a.m. and leave it at 17.00. I was given a computer to work at, that is, to perform translations, send emails or search for useful information etc. Then I was introduced to the co-workers from the same room. My supervisor has also explained me what were the requirements for fire security. In this context she warned me not to connect different electrical heating appliances because these ones could have caused an overload of the electrical network and that would have led to short circuits and electricity blackout in the best case. I was also informed to unplug computers or other electrical appliances as far as they are not in use in order to prevent their overheating and damage. Then my co-workers explained me the corporate ethics at the department I was assigned to work. Afterwards, I was explained the hierarchy of the Faculty, i.e. the dean, vice-dean, heads of the chairs, methodic workers, professors, lecturers, etc.

As of my relations with the staff of the Faculty of History and International Relations, it is to note that they were very warm ones and were also characterized by a workable atmosphere, and all the professors and lecturers were very friendly and had the sense of mutual help. From this point of view, I got the full support from the people I worked with during the stage in translation.

Talking about my work in translation I would like to mention the types of work I performed in a bit more detail. Thus, my direct duties were to translate different types of documents, to interpret during different meetings, to write and receive emails, to drive the guests about the city to the places they needed, to search for related information via the internet, to participate within the activities organized by the faculty.

The translations I had to perform related to different types of documents as contracts, conventions, meeting programs, general information pertaining to the field of history or international relations that the academic staff used in for their lectures within classes or trainings or conferences. Talking about conferences, it is to mention that I used to translate professors’ reports on topics related to history or international relations, those reports were meant for further publication in home or international editions. I also translated articles or separate passages from them in which the academic staff was interested. As for the directions of translation, I would mention that I dealt with both, version, i.e. translation from foreign, in our case English language and theme (translation from native into foreign, that is, from Romanian into English).

The degree of their difficulty was very different, so I had to deal from the lowest one that was about translating meeting programs and leaflets that did not imply any difficult words or idioms. The highest degree of difficulty was the translation of mutual agreements and scientific, historical texts. They were difficult because there were a lot of terminological words and set phrases that I could not comprehend from the first time.

Speaking about interpretations, it is to mention that they also were multidimensional, this means that, the interpretations I had to perform ranged from phone or Skype talks with foreign managers of the projects to the simultaneous interpretations within events held in Chisinau. It was very difficult for the first time for me to deal with oral interpretations, but afterwards, I realized that the main difficulty was the fear of speaking in public or of committing mistakes. But thanks to our courses of consecutive interpretation, I had acquired the basic skills needed to perform both consecutive and simultaneous translation. Now I can say that I have got a great practice and experience in performing oral interpretations.

As one of main specialties we graduate from is secretary work, I had to work with electronic mail. And my duties were to write emails to foreign partners from Romania, Bulgaria, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Russia, etc. Besides specific computer-related knowledge which is needed in order to send, receive and forward an email. Another difficulty was to send multiple copies of emails to different addressees, to attach, download and preview documents, creating specific groups etc. And I learnt a lot from this experience and now I am a lot more proficient and computer literate than I used to be before. In addition to computer and internet-related issues, the email sending implies the usage of official letter or official correspondence style which has very strict rules and set phrases.

As of the difficulty of the text under translation, I could not reveal a really tough case. This is due to the fact that the most of terminology I had to deal with referred to the field of history or education. Little couldn’t I know from the terminology being translated. It was a really very easy time for me during the translation practice.

Talking about the toughness in translation related to the direction of translation, it is to note that I had a little bit more difficulties while translating from Romanian into English i.e. performing the theme (from native into foreign language translation). This is due to the fact that my English is still not as good as Romanian, and hence, I had to use the dictionary a bit more often when doing that type of translation direction. In rest the translation practice was a very smooth and pleasant process I wish I had during my ongoing professional career.

After having said where I held my translation practice, what types of translation I have done and what difficulties arose in the process of translation, I would like to say that part of the described above is materialized in a Practice Portfolio which is going to contain proofs in form of different translated materials and documents signed by Mrs. Tihonov Ludmila, my direct supervisor at the Faculty of History and International Relation of FIUM.

So, the portfolio will contain the following constituents: 1. The practice agreement signed by the dean of the Faculty of Letters and the principal of the lyceum. 2. A characteristics where my activity will be described and assessed by the person in charge with my translation practice. 3. A CV in Europass format which unifies the personal information in a generally-accepted and understandable form. 4.Ten pages of translations (version) the translated texts are marked respectively as follows: Text 1 (original), Text 1 (translation). 5 Ten pages of translations (theme) the translated texts are marked respectively as follows: Text 1 (original), Text 1 (translation). 6. A glossary with about two hundred educational terms described according to the way dictionaries describe different terms. 7. A practice diary signed by the responsible for my translation practice where I describe the activities I had every day. 8. The present report. 9. Additional materials. 10. A compact disc with all these materials plus several photos burnt on it.

As conclusion I would like to stress that the practice is very important in order to improve different skills and abilities related to the translation and to specific terminology knowledge in my case, educational and historical terminological units.

But not only does the benefit of the practice in translation deal with the acquiring new skills and competences, one of the most important advantage of it is to make you feel like in a professional environment, the only difference is that you are not paid for what you do. Thus you are learnt the sense of responsibility, which implies coming on time, performing the work you are given in due terms, having the ability to critically analyse the translations and make the necessary corrections, having the sense of recognizing one’s own mistakes. I think that the practice I have had has made me ready for the real professional life.

Another conclusion I have drawn is that it is not enough to stress a good English, when it is about translating specialized terminology, simple bilingual dictionaries were not sufficient in order to find specific terminological units, so I had to use a dictionary of specific terms pertaining to history and education. Another useful trip is to check the variant you have chosen with explanatory dictionaries or with Google’s search browser in order to assure oneself that the right variant is used.

At the end of my report I would like to bring sincere thanks to the teachers of the Faculty of Letters who have contributed to my personal development not only in learning new words or phrases or acquiring specific skills, they inspired me to overcome the fear and strive for getting a high class specialist in the field of translations.

The topic of our license project is Semantic Difficulties in the Terminological Units Translation Process (Case Study).

Actuality of the topic: The process of semantic transfer from the source language into the target language is a complex topic. It is a very actual one as the terminological units that I have had the chance to translate deals with historical and diplomatic translations, following the translation practice within the Faculty of History and International Relations. In the conditions when the Republic of Moldova has signed the Association Agreement and wants to get the status of a candidate country of accession to the European Union, correct translations and interpretations are imperatively necessary. Thus, our project paper has to do with such kind of translations and with the difficulties that occur in the process of such translations. The texts and the terminological units presented below in our practical chapter are based on the materials that I hadhe Republic of Moldova has signed the Association Agreement and wants to get the status of a candidate country of accession to the European Union, correct translations and interpretations are imperatively necessary. Thus, our project paper has to do with such kind of translations and with the difficulties that occur in the process of such translations. The texts and the terminological units presented below in our practical chapter are based on the materials that I had to translate during my translation practice performed in November and October 2014.

Thus, the aim of our licence project is to perform an analysis of semantic difficulties arising in the process of history-related terminology translation.

Hence, the operational objectives that stem from the aim described above are the following:

To provide a translation of historical terminology from English into Romanian and French;

To provide a translation of historical terminology from Romanian into English and French;

To classify the terminology according to its etymology;

To classify the terminology according to the techniques of translation;

To provide practical advice referring to the ways of overcoming different difficulties in the process of historical terminology translation.

In order to accomplish the above aim and operational objectives, our project paper comprises the following constituent elements.

Introduction. In this part we have described the translation practice in a very detailed way. We have described the period of the practice, the place I have performed it and the period. Also I have described the type of texts submitted to translation and the main difficulties and the ways of overcoming them. The second part of it deals with the description of the aim and objectives as well as the main units of the project paper.

Chapter I. This is a theoretical chapter. It is aimed at bringing the opinion of different linguists and translatologists on the main topic of our project, that is, the one of revealing the semantic peculiarities and difficulties in the translation of terminological units and namely the ones related to history. The theoretical information is very important because it brings into light different ways the historical terminology should be translated. This kind of information by different linguists help us to make our own opinion and set up a strategy to work according to during the practical chapter.

Chapter II. This part of our paper relates to a practical research related to the translation of the historical texts. This chapter features two pairs of texts, the first one represents a sample of the version translation, i.e. from English into Romanian, and the second the theme – from Romanian into English. Then the basic and the most relevant terminology is being extracted from both pairs of texts and analysed according to the following scheme: 1. The term, 2. Its grammatical category, 3. Its etymology, 4. Translation into Romanian, 5. Translation into French, 6. A commentary on the translation of the term and a depiction of the most difficult and interesting cases.

Conclusion. In this part we use the conclusions, recommendations and practical advice concerning the use and translation of the historical terminology in multidimensional directions. These are based on the practical work and cases encountered during the work on the practical chapter as well as conclusions made after performing my translation practice.

Bibliography. In this section, a list of bibliographical sources like theoretical books, dictionaries and web links is used. The sources helped us in performing the theoretical research as well as the translations. They are arranged in an alphabetical order and classified according to the types, i.e. theoretical sources, dictionaries and internet sources.

Annex. This last unit of our project paper features a glossary of historical terms which are given the definition followed by Romanian and French translations. Besides the glossary, we have used certain charts and diagrams concerning the statistical analysis of different categories related to the historical terminology.

SEMANTIC DIFFICULTIES IN HISTORY-RELATED TERMS TRANSLATION

This first theoretical chapter is devoted to a theoretical study of the terms translation. The theoretical study is a very important aspect of our project paper as it provides us with the necessary theoretical tools to be able to perform a practical research basing on the materials of our translation practice. The chapter below is a strategy according to which we shall perform the analysis of the history-related terms from the viewpoint of their translation techniques, grammatical category, specific difficulties in translation and so on.

I.1. Equivalents in translation

Source language and target language words may interact in different ways. They may correspond to the mono-equivalents or regular equivalents. A mono-equivalent is a regular equivalent source language word may consist of a word or phrase as: oxygen – oxigen – oxygène; history – istorie – histoire; House of Commons – Camera Comunelor – Chambre des Communes, etc. Mostly, regular equivalents, are words or proper names [2, p.321].

Multi-equivalent variables are equivalents, which in the translation into the source language one has to make a choice between equivalents with the same meaning. Restauration – Restaurare (perioadă istorică), restaurare (reconstrucție) – restauration (période historique), restauration (relatif aux restaurants) they may be multifaceted, each end having one or more equivalents: essence – esență, ființă;

A relata – to relate, to retell, to reveal, to render, to report, etc [2, p.327].

Each target language variable equivalents convey meaning in part: for instance, the applicant – pretendent (la domnie), candidat, contender, etc. What are the reasons that make it impossible to have mono-equivalents? First of all, semantic structure of words in different languages ​​are not the same, word connotative meanings are not the same in different languages, interlinguistic suggested meanings are different, leading to word combinations and words acquire specific meanings in a specific context [3, p. 217].

I.2. The connotations of translated words

Even with the same referential word meaning (denotative) is not fully equivalent in terms of their connotations when rendered in the translation. The English-Romanian dictionary offers two meanings for the word throne: tron, scaun. The first equivalent translation is neutral, the latter is expressive. As the English word throne is more general, partial equivalent of it is the word scaun which means the same but used as historical reference to denote the throne of Romanian princes in the Middle Ange [1, p.103].

Or the Romanian word zdohnit is not a full equivalent in English language for dead, as given by the Romanian Oxford dictionary. Zdohnit is a very informal word, expressive, while dead is a neutral counterpart.

Not only denotative (referential) meaning, but also its connotative nuances should be considered in translation:

emotional coloring: puppy – cățeluș bunny – iepuraș. Romanian is known to be abundant in diminutive suffixes (șoricel, linguriță, cănuță). Because these suffixes are not as typical in English and in Romanian, they are lost in translation: cănuța era plină cu ceaișor – the cup was full of tea.

stylistic subtext: a vorbi (neutral) vs. a vocifera (poetic); bărbat (informal) – soț (formal).

Associations: nations have different associations in connection with this or that word. Thus, the English word blue is often associated with something unpleasant:

to look blue – a fi posomarît; be blue – a nu avea dispoziție; storytelling blue – a povesti istorioare necenzurate; to be in a blue funk – a panica foarte mult; to be blue – a allege calea grșită; burn blue – a fi un semn rău. Romanian word albastru is often associated with unpleasant things: albastru de frig (cold blue), abastru de ciudă, etc.

Another example: in English, a chicken is used pejoratively to refer to a cowardly person: Why do you jump? Are you a chicken? In Romanian, puișor is associated with a helpless little creature and is often referred to a young child who needs help [4, p.76].

I.3. Specialized words or words bound to the context

Word-related context is a word whose meaning is clear only in a specific context. The context is the text that comes immediately before or after a particular word or phrase and helps explain its meaning. Context is classified in micro- and macro-context. Micro-context surrounding a word in a sentence or phrase. Macro-context is a larger text (a passage, a story, etc.) where the word is used [3, p.461].

Translating both types of context are essential to guess the meaning of a polysemantic word or a homonym. For example, the macro-context is very important for translating headlines, which are characterized by ellipses, not just words structural and theoretical parts of the sentence [ibidem].

It is mandatory for a translator to consider, together with the context, constitution, which is often called general knowledge. This notion implies awareness of time, place and circumstances of what is spoken. For example, to translate the following microdialogue: – Cît? – 2:5. To it, could be offered several options, depending on the situation: "How much?" – "Two dollars five cents." (In store); "What's the score?" – "Two to five" (after a fight); "What time is it?" – Five minutes past two [1, p.173].

The context helps you find an equivalent translation of a word in the dictionary not fixed or attached to the dictionary, but with a different meaning. Over time, contextual meaning can become a normative sense established by the dictionary. This occurred, for example, with the word baby. All dictionaries translated iubite, ingerașule, etc. While dear is already used as an address within a very formal and therefore corresponds to stimat(ți) in Romanian [4, p.88].

To find an occasional equivalent to a word, use a logical method of interpolation. Contextual meaning of a word, expressed by equivalent is occasionally found by studying the entire structure and semantics of the word properly inferring the meaning from the two adjacent meanings set out in the dictionary. Undoubtedly, to interpolate equivalent, a translator should be aware of all the meanings of a word is by using translation and monolingual dictionaries and thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms [2, p.370].

Another way to translate a word, for which no dictionary equivalent fits a translator is to explain the meaning. For example, the President may call a meeting, "Mr. N is our timekeeper" timekeeper equivalent word in the dictionary is the following : Cronometrist, cronometru, contor de timp but none of them fits the given situation. Thus, a better solution would be to render the meaning by a translator’s explanation: Domnul N va veghea asupra regulamentului ȋntrunirii [4, p.92].

Usually definitive translation is applied to neologisms, or words that are not yet established in newly-written bilingual dictionaries: for example, People’s can do attitude is essential to enterprise culture. – Oamenii cu atitudine sȋrguincioasă, sunt foarte importanți ȋn afaceri [3, p.490].

The theoretical chapter that we have compelled, is a collection of statements by different researchers in the field of linguistics and translation studies. We have systematized the above statements so that they become a valuable strategic points in our further practical study on the way historical terminology can be translated.

A PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS TERMINOLOGY

This practical chapter is devoted to the practical research and analysis of the specific terminology related to the fields of humanities as history and international relations. The terminological units presented here will touch upon several sub-fields like diplomacy, conflict settlement, theory of talks, etc. The terminological units are analysed under the grammatical, etymological, contrastive and translational aspects. Then these are followed by a short commentary on the difficulties of translation encountered in the present work. Before the terminological units are depicted, samples of original and translated texts will be presented which will also be followed by a short commentary on the type of texts, the field their terminology refers to, etc.

II.1. Samples of historical texts translation

Text sample 1 (original)

Al Doilea Război Mondial

Al Doilea Război Mondial a fost un război global care a durat 1939-1945, deși conflictele legate de început mai devreme. Aceasta a implicat marea majoritate a națiunilor lumii toate marile puteri-în cele din urmă fac două alianțe militare opuse: antanta și axa. Acesta a fost războiul cel mai răspândit în istorie, și direct a implicat mai mult de 100 de milioane de oameni din peste 30 de țări. Într-o stare de "război total", participantii majori au aruncat capacitățile lor economice, industriale și științifice întregi în spatele efortul de război, ștergerea distincția între resurse andmilitary civile. Marcat de decese în masă a civililor, inclusiv a Holocaustului (timp în care aproximativ 11 milioane de persoane au fost ucise) și bombardarea strategică a centre industriale și de populație (în timpul căreia aproximativ un milion de persoane au fost ucise, inclusiv utilizarea a două armelor nucleare în luptă), aceasta a dus la o valoare estimata de 50 până în 85 milioane de decese. Acestea făcut al doilea război mondial mortala conflictul din istoria omenirii. Imperiul Japoniei domina Asia și Pacificul și a fost deja în război cu Republica China în 1937, dar războiul mondial este, în general, spune că a început la o septembrie 1939, cu invazia Poloniei de către Germania și declarațiile ulterioare de război Germaniei de către Franța și Regatul Unit. De la sfârșitul lui 1939 la începutul anului 1941, într-o serie de campanii și tratate, Germania a cucerit sau controlată o mare parte a Europei continentale, și a format alianța Axis cu Italia și Japonia. Ca urmare a Pactului Ribbentrop-Molotov, Germania și Uniunea Sovietică a distribuit și anexat teritoriile vecinilor lor europene, inclusiv Polonia, Finlanda și statele baltice. Regatul Unit și Commonwealth au fost singurele forțe aliate continue lupta împotriva Axei, cu campaniile din Africa de Nord și Cornul Africii, precum și Bătălia de lungă durată a Atlanticului. În iunie 1941, puterile Axei Europeană a lansat o invazie a Uniunii Sovietice, deschiderea mai mare teatru de teren de război în istorie, care prins cea mai mare parte a forțelor militare Axei "într-un război de uzură. În decembrie 1941, Japonia a atacat Statele Unite ale Americii și teritoriile europene în Oceanul Pacific, și repede a cucerit o mare parte din Pacificul de Vest [11, online].

Text sample 1 (translation)

World War II

World War II (WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, though related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of "total war", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (during which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (during which approximately one million people were killed, including the use of two nuclear weapons in combat), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.

The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, including Poland, Finland and the Baltic states. The United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth were the only Allied forces continuing the fight against the Axis, with campaigns in North Africa and the Horn of Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a War of Attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.

The texts below obviously represent samples of history-related texts as they refer to the World War II. The original text is taken from the Wikipedia free site, and it is an example of a scientific text as it does not include the stylistic devices like simile, comparison, irony, personification, etc., which are common to literary texts. It features short, simple or compound sentences that contain precise information, figures, years, etc. The tenses used in the text relate to the past and they are past simple in most cases, plus past perfect to show the relation of anteriority to a past action. There were no major difficulties in translating the text above, as in fact, with the rest of the texts because, at least to me, the historical and diplomatic terminology seems to be not only easy but also interesting. Below, we are going to present a list of terminological units related to the field of history and diplomacy. They will be analysed from the angles of semantic difficulty, etymology, techniques of translation and under the comparative aspects.

II.2. Empirical analysis of historical texts and terminology

Alliance (n), etym. – French; Romanian – alianță [5, p.11]; French – alliance [13, online].

Definition- a formal agreement between two or more states or nations to cooperate for specific purposes [10, online].

Comment: The translation techniques that was used in rendering the above term into Romanian was transliteration as there are Romanian diacritic characters in the word. While the French word is the same as in English, in fact English borrowed the above word from French to designate the meaning comprised in the definition.

Axis (n), etym. –Greek; Romanian – Axă [6, p.19]; French – Axe [13, online].

Definition – a pact between Germany, Italy and later Japan in fight against the Allied forces countries. Originally it referred to Anticomintern pact [8, p. 73].

Comment: It can be easily revealed here that the term in question has been translated the same as it conveys the cultural and historical elements belonging to the world’s cultural heritage. The word has become internationalized first of all due to its Greek origin. As for the techniques of translations used, it to say that obviously, the techniques of calque or loan translation was applied in this case.

British Commonwealth (n), etym. – English; Romanian – Comuniunea britanică de Națiuni [6, p.42]; French – La communauté Britannique [13, online].

Definition – A union established between The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its former colonies. The Commonwealth is headed by the Queen and is an economic and political forum aimed at strengthening the relations between those countries [8, p. 205].

Comment: We can notice that the term Commonwealth was translated in both Romanian and French using the techniques of literal translation, although certain elements like transposition and explicatory translations were used. Hence, in French we have La communauté Britannique while in Romanian Comuniunea britanică de Națiuni. For the case of Romanian language the explicatory translation was used in order to add the meaning which is present in this phrase and is well known to the British or French communities but less known to Romanian-language speakers, as it had to deal less with this historical and political background.

Campaign (n), etym. – French; Romanian – campanie [5, p.63]; French – campagne [13, online].

Definition – A military force deployment in order to lead a war with a country or another military force. Is commonly used to denote a war of conquering another country or region [8, p. 270].

Comment: The translation into Romanian and French languages is not difficult as the technique of calque has been used. The other constraint is to know the usage of another meaning of the term which may be used in the political field (to run a political campaign or an advertising campaign). Interestingly, in Romanian and French, the same substitutes are used which denotes the fact that the term has been borrowed with at least three of its meanings into English and Romanian.

Collectivisation (n), etym. – French; Romanian – colectivizare [5, p.78]; French – collectivization [13, online].

Definition – A forced programme of the farmland nationalization in Soviet Union following the October Revolution. This project implied the foundation of collective farming units called Kolkhoz where the farmers were involved [8, p. 286].

Comment: As the term stems from the French language we can see that English has borrowed the word directly by means of transliteration technique, that is, direct borrowing of the word while in pronunciation, it keeps the norms of English pronunciation. As for the Romanian translation, we have also used the direct method by means of the literal translation, as the Romanian word has the Romanian language ending.

Common Market (n), etym. -English Romanian – piața comună [9, online]; French – le marché commun [13, online].

Definition – is a term referring to the first stage in creating the Single Market, and is extensively used to denote the economic and trade relations on a single legal basis of the European countries which later formed the EU [7, p.379].

Comment: There were no particular difficulties in translating the term in question, the translation techniques used in this case was the transposition, i.e. the elements of the phrase which denote the adjective are used after the determined word in both Romanian and French in order to comply with the grammar rules in the above languages.

Conflict (n), etym. – French; Romanian – conflict [9, online]; French – conflit [13, online].

Definition – a state of mutual misunderstanding which can degenerate in military action against the conflicting parties [7, p.415].

Comment: The translation of the term above has no difficulty. The technique we used to translate the term conflict is calque. It is to note that the term was borrowed into Romanian from English, as the French form conflit is not used in the Romanian language [8, p. 381].

Coup d'état (n), etym. – French; Romanian – lovitură de stat [9, online]; French – Coup d'Etat [13, online].

Definition – A takeover of the power in a state on an unlawful basis. Usually happens by means of revolutions or military actions [7, p.432].

Comment: The term which represents a phrase which comes from French is an example of a borrowing translation in English. We mean that the term has migrated into English in the way it is in French without sensible difference. While into Romanian, the term has undergone a literal translation which also stems from French.

Decembrists (n), etym. – Russian; Romanian – decembriști [9, online]; French – décembristes [13, online].

Definition – A group of Russian insurgents belonging to noble families. They tried to dismiss the Russian tsar by means of a bombing against the tsar in December, but the coup was unsuccessful and the Decembrists were executed [7, p. 491].

Comment: the translation performed here has been done using the techniques of a direct borrowing in both Romanian and French.

Dialectical materialism (adj+noun), etym. – Greek; Romanian – materialism dialectic [9, online]; French – Le matérialisme dialectique [13, online].

Definition – A philosophical concept based on the fact that all natural phenomena evolve, and new qualities of the nature and beings emerge at every new step of the evolution [7, p.505].

Comment: It is quite difficult to translate the terminological phrase without solid background knowledge in philosophy and history. The term is only found in specialized dictionaries although the translation technique used is a direct one – word for word translation.

Directory (n), etym. – French; Romanian – Directorat [9, online]; French – Directoire [13, online].

Definition – A state of Government of the French republic after the anti-royal revolution of 1795. The government of Directorate was marked by a violent annihilation of the Revolution’s enemies [7, p.508].

Comment: We can see that the English language has borrowed the term from French using the calque translation technique. Romanian has used the same techniques although it seems that the word came into Romanian via English as the terms in both languages seem to be more alike than between Romanian and French, consider: Directorate (English) – Directorat (Romanian) and Directoire (French).

Empire (n), etym. – French; Romanian – imperiu [6, p.92]; French – empire [13, online].

Definition – A form of state organization which encompasses several nations and ruled from the metropolitan state by an emperor or a government [7, p.574]. Comment: The translation into Romanian represents a direct borrowing from French the same as the translation toward English. The English basic term that is used in the entry is a direct borrowing from French.

Fascism (n), etym. – Italian; Romanian – fascism [9, online]; French – fascisme [13, online].

Definition – An ideology based on the principles of racial discrimination which was born in Italy and B. Mussolini is one of the fathers of it. The principle of racial discrimination was particularly directed against Jews [8, p. 509].

Comment: We can notice that the term fascism has become internationalized because of its wide use and of its Italian roots that is the closest to Latin and as we know, Latin words along Greek ones are on the top of international terms.

Feudalism (n), etym. – Latin (feudum=fee); Romanian – feudalism [6, p.132]; French – féodalisme [13, online].

Definition – A legal and proprietary system of land in the Middle Age Europe which was characterized by the payment of a certain fee of the peasants to the landlords [8, p. 540].

Comment: There were no particular difficulties when translating the term, we have used the technique of direct translation. What is characteristic to this term is that it was coined by the historians, so the word does not exist in the common language out of its meaning descried in the definition.

Gestapo (n), etym. – Romanian – Gestapo [5, p.192]; French – Gestapo [13, online].

Definition – German secret police aimed at repressing the Jews and the ones who expressed their disagreement with the Hitler’s regime [7, p.619].

Comment: The technique of direct translation or calque was used when translating the term Gestapo. This is because the name of an organization which was spread in Germany in a specific historical period can not be translated into English, French or Romanian using the names of the secret police in their own country, thus the only acceptable variant here is the loan translation.

Holocaust (n), etym. – Greek; Romanian – holocaust [9, online]; French – holocaust [13, online].

Definition – A policy led of genocide against Europe’s Jewish population by Germany in the first half of the twentieth century. About six million Jews were killed or deported [7, p.675].

Comment: Again, we used the technique of the loan translation in the case above. As in the two previous cases this term refers to what exactly it means, i.e. no other acceptable meanings of it in the field of historical terminology are present.

Huguenot (n), etym. French; – Romanian – hughenot [9, online]; French – huguenaute [13, online].

Definition – A member of French group of protestants. He was a member of the protestant Church of France in the XV and XVI-th century [7, p.682].

Comment: Like in the previous examples we have used the technique of direct translation via the procedure of loan translation as the word stems from French.

Impressionism (n), etym. – French; Romanian – impressionism [9, online]; French – impressionisme [13, online].

Definition – A fine arts term which originally referred to painting and denotes a way of painting characterized by a rapid indication of the colours, tones and light [7, p.708].

Comment: Again the term impressionism stems from the French and German languages and it has known a wide representation in all languages that is why the term has been translated into both Romanian and French languages via the techniques of calque.

Invasion (n), etym. – French; Romanian – invazie [9, online]; French – invasion [13, online].

Definition – Action performed by the armed forces of a belligerent country when the troops enter by military force on the sovereign territory of another belligerent country [8, p. 731].

Comment: As in the previous example, we have used the technique of word-for-word translation as the word penetrated into the world’s languages from French and has become internationalized.

Kingdom (n), etym. – old English; Romanian – regat [9, online]; French – royaume [13, online].

Definition – A state organization by which the power in a state is held by the monarch. It can occur in different forms from absolute monarchies to the constitutional monarchies [7, p.800].

Comment: Here, we have used the technique of literal or word-for-word translation for the English word. We can see, that due to historical reasons, i.e. historical periods, this form of state organization occurred in different states, and there was no need in a loan word or transliteration from other languages. That is why in Romanian and French we have different words, that is, words that have completely different stems: kingdom; regat and royaume. We can notice that the stems in the three languages all mean the ruler of the kingdom.

Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (n), etym. – English; Romanian – Pactul Molotov-Ribbentrop [9, online]; French – le Pacte Molotov-Ribbentrop[13, online].

Definition – A treaty between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed between their foreign ministers – Molotov (Soviet Union) and Ribbentrop (Germany). The Pact had as its main objective non-aggression between the above-mentioned states [8, p. 814].

Comment: For translating the term above, we have used the technique of loan translation. Although the first two words that represent proper names, were translated using the direct borrowing or transliteration as those words are proper names, and they are not subject to translation.

No man's land (World War I) (n), etym. – English; Romanian – pămînt al nimănui [9, online]; French – No man's land [13, online].

Definition – A zone between fighting armies. Usually that is a strip of land used as a buffer to perform military maneuvers [8, p. 899].

Comment: We can see that the word has been translated into Romanian differently by comparison to the French variant which has used the method of a direct borrowing from English. While translating into Romanian we have applied the technique of transposition translation. We can only guess the reason why in French and Romanian the terminology differs as a matter of translation. Our presumption is that France was directly involved in that conflict and the term arose on the French land, while into Romanian, it has come in the translated variant.

Republic (n), etym. – Latin; Romanian – republică [9, online]; French – république [13, online].

Definition – A form of a state governance which is characterized by the participative democracy, that is, all important decisions are taken by the people or by an assembly (called Senate, Parliament or Assembly) which represents the interests of the people in the country [7, p.1087].

Soviet Union (n), etym. – Russian; Romanian – Uniunea Sovietică [9, online]; French – Union Soviètique [13, online].

Definition – A country based on forms Russian empire after its breakdown. It comprised fifteen nations organized in republics. The Soviet Union lasted from 1917 to 1990 [7, p.1163].

Comment: The technique of translation used here were the literal translation or the calque with elements of transposition as in both, French and Romanian, the determiner lies after the determined word, while in English, vice-versa.

Treaty (n), etym. – French; Romanian – tratat [6, p.404]; French – traité [13, online].

Definition – An agreement concluded between two or more countries on different political and military matters. Treaties may be concluded in the state of peace or after concluding a war or military dispute [7, p.1214].

Comment: The procedure of direct translation was also used in the translation of the example above.

War (n), etym. – English; Romanian – război [5, p.390]; French – guerre[13, online].

Definition – A state of military offensive actions between two actors like countries, group of countries, nations, tribes, etc. The state of war presupposes the presence of a winning and losing party [7, p.1382].

Comment: In order to translate the term in question, the direct translation has been used as it is the case for the specialized terminology. Although the term designates exactly the same in the tree languages, their stems are again different, and we can conclude, that the situation called war occurred in all the countries, thus getting the specific names for the word bearing this meaning.

World War II (n), etym. – English; Romanian – Al Doilea Război Mondial [9, online]; French – La Seconde Guerre Mondiale [13, online].

Definition – A global war which took place from 1939 till 1945 which involved all the continents. In fact, there were two belligerent group of nations: the Axis and the Allied Powers. The war began because of the imperialistic ambitions of the Axis and in the end those countries were defeated by the Allied Powers [8, p. 1005].

This was our practical chapter which was devoted to an empiric study of the specialized vocabulary related to the field of history and international relations. This practical chapter, alongside with the theoretical information from the first chapter, will serve as a solid base in drafting the conclusions and practical recommendations in our next part of the licence project.

CONCLUSION

Following the experience we have acquired during the translation practice within the Faculty of International Relations and Public Communication at Free International University of Moldova. After a thorough theoretical research in the first theoretical chapter of out licence project, as well as an empirical research based on the texts that have been translated during our translation practice and the analysis of the specialized, history and international relations terminology, we have come to the following conclusions and recommendations.

It is worth noting that the translation practice is a very good exercise whereby we have to apply all our knowledge and skills that we have acquired during the three years of study at university. Not only did I use in practice the knowledge and skills, I had the greatest opportunity to improve them a lot. I found out what it is to be compelled to render a translation in time, I learnt different tricks in the process of written translation. I have also acquired new and very useful knowledge on using the specific tools which are indispensable for the work of a modern translator.

Thus I learnt to use monolingual dictionaries, i.e. explanatory dictionaries in order to find the most suitable translation for a word, I improved the speed of my translation, being able to provide the translations I was required in due time.

As for technological tools, it is to say that I have learnt to use Microsoft Office tools and especially the MS Word application, now I am a better expert at finding synonyms to different words within the application itself, I know how to arrange the text on a page, clean the format of a copied text, insert different pictures and diagrams, use key shortcuts instead of wasting time with the mouse or the touchpad.

The internet has also come to my help – one of very useful tools is the Google Translate resource which is available online. In recent years, it has improved much the ability to translate. Not only did I use it in order to translate different terms, or phrases, it is also very helpful when translating entire texts. The translation of texts performed by this tool is to be checked very thoroughly afterwards, which is a little bit time-consuming, but this saves much more time that merely translating the source text from the sheet of paper or from the electronic variant of the original text which can bring a lot of additional problems like damaging the file or losing the lines while translating from the paper.

When performing written translations where specific terminological units are used, a general-purpose dictionary is not enough when we aim to find a word or a term, that is why, we consider that specialized dictionaries should be used in order to find the suitable variant for the term we want to translate. Let us consider the example of the term Huguenot which means a protestant towards the state official religion in France and which is not merely found in simple dictionaries, only after has a specialized dictionary of historical terms been used, we are able to find that it translates as hughenot/ți into Romanian and Huguenots in French.

Sometimes, when the terminological unit is relatively new, even specialized dictionaries can not deliver the translation to the term, even if the unit belongs to the field of history which we may believe features outdated terms or the ones widely known to everyone. But history, as any other field of research, develops and new terminology comes into usage. In order to properly translate such terms other tools like encyclopedias or search engines are of a great help. Thus, we have the term Anthropocene which means the current historical and geological epoch, and it is not to be found in regular dictionaries, and only searching in google gives us the clues of its translation, hence it stands for antropocen in Romanian and anthropocène in French.

While translating historical texts, we found out that the terminology that is considered to belong to the field of history, belongs in fact to some other arias o human activities and research such as: geology, diplomacy, international relations, culture, civilization, etc. Further we have the examples of the term treaty which is used in the fields of diplomacy, political science and war; republic, in diplomacy and law; Anthropocene, in geology. Accordingly, it is difficult to single out a single term as belonging solely to the field of history, and consequently, the term in question has to be sought in other specialized dictionaries or on the Internet.

Many terminological units have common Latin or Greek roots that have penetrated into Romanian and English by means of the French language and thus, are translated in both English and Romanian via direct translation techniques like loan translation, word-for-word translation or calque. We can bring such examples as republic – republică – république; treaty – tratat – traité; or impressionism – impressionism – impressionisme. Another aspect of such words, is that they have become internationalized as they have been implemented by countries whose language was most widely spoken at the moment, like France, the UK, or the USA.

There exist terms which are translated via direct techniques of transliteration from English into French, while the translation into Romanian exhibits the technique of oblique, or modulation translation. This is due to historical factors and events in which the nations speaking French and English in our case directly participated and the historical background is important while rendering such translations. Here we have the example of an English-language coinage no man’s land which in French is exactly the same – no man’s land, while in Romanian we have pămînt al nimănui.

The term campaign which in the military field refers to a military action or a trip towards a belligerent country or region, while the second meaning may refer to the political field as in the phrase to run a political campaign, as well as in the field of marketing as in the syntagm advertising campaign. Interestingly the term in question have exactly the same meanings in Romanian and French (campanie politică-campagne politique, campanie publicitară, campagne publicitaire). This fact should make the translator attentive to the field or the registry where the term is used to avoid contextual mistakes.

The translation of the term conflict from English into Romanian is conflict while in French it is conflit. This has led us to the conclusion that the term was borrowed into Romanian by means of the Latin Language (conflictus) which migrated into French as conflit. English and Romanian have preserved the Latin stem conflictus while in French the stem has modified. This makes us believe that the term was borrowed into Romanian rather from English than from French.

There are such history-related terms that are extremely rarely used out of the context of history. Usually those are the terms coined by the historians themselves. This is the case of feudalism which has weakly penetrated into the common language and in any case it is used, it refers to a historical age between the Antiquity and the Modern Age.

Talking about the term kingdom – regat – royaume, we shall mention that due to historical reasons, i.e. historical periods, this form of state organization occurred in different states, and there was no need in a loan word or transliteration from other languages. That is why in Romanian and French we have different words, that is, words that have completely different stems: kingdom; regat and royaume. We can notice that the stems in the three languages all mean the ruler of the kingdom.

Finally we would like to mention and bring sincere acknowledgements to the teachers who by their perseverance, diligence and wisdom have made us believe in ourselves most of all, and acquire useful knowledge and skills that will certainly help us in our future career.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. 350 p.

Fraser B. Idioms within a transformational grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 428 p.

Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories. 2nd Ed. London & New York: Routledge, 2001. 519 p.

Samuellson–Brown, G. A Practical Guide for Translators. Clevedon, Philadelphia, Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 2010. 317 p.

Dictionaries

Irimia, Marian. Dictionar Englez-Român. Chișinău: Cartier, 2011. 412p.

Plăcintar, Emilia. Dicționar englez-român, român-englez. Chișinău: Știința, 2010. 572 p.

Sheridan, Thomas. A General Dictionary of the English Language. London: Bloomsbury, 2005. 1403 p.

The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.1091 p.

Internet sources

English-Romanian dictionary available at http://www.dictionaryenglish romanian.com/ro/dictionar-englez-rom (visited, 15.04.2015)

Literary texts website available at http://tvtropes.org/ pmwiki /pmwiki. php/ Main/YouAreTheTranslatedForeignWord (visited, 30.04.2015)

Online general-purpose encyclopedia written in Romanian Language, available at http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial (visited, 15.11.2014)

Online glossary on diplomatic terminology databases available at http://blog.onehourtranslation.com/diplomatic-translation/translation-and-diplomacy/ (visited, 24.03.2015)

Web-based English-French, French-English online dictionary available at: http://en.pons.com/translate/english-french (visited, 24.04.2015)

ANNEX

Annex 1

STATEMENT*

regarding the originality of the contents of the License / Master’s Thesis

I, the undersigned ……………MIȚUL Anastasia…………………. in my capacity of graduate of Free International University of Moldova, Faculty of …Letters………………., specialty…English-French……, year of graduation………2015…………, declare on my own responsibility that the License / Master’s Thesis entitled Semantic Difficulties in the Terminological Units Translation Process (Case Study )…, which has been elaborated under the supervision of Mr. / Mrs. …Andrei BOLFOSU……..………… and is to be presented to a committee, is original and I am the sole author.

I hereby declare that I have not plagiarized any License / Master’s Theses, monographs, specialized works, articles, etc.; published or posted on Internet, as well as other biographical sources consulted in the process of the thesis elaboration for awarding License / Master title.

I declare that I agree to my License / Master’s Thesis being checked in any legal ways in order to assess its originality, thereof its content being introduced in a database for such purpose.

Date………………………………. Student’s signature…………………….……………

Annex 2

Annex 3

Annex 4

Glossary of historical and diplomacy terms

Accession – aderare – adhésion

The procedure by which a nation becomes a party to an agreement already in force between other nations

Accords – acord – accorde

International agreements originally thought to be for lesser subjects than covered by treaties , but now really treaties by a different name.

Ad Referendum – Ad Referendum – Ad Referendum

An agreement reached ad referendum means an agreement reached by negotiators at the table, subject to the subsequent concurrence of their governments.

Agrément – acord – agrément

Diplomatic courtesy requires that before a state appoints a new chief of diplomatic mission to represent it in another state, it must be first ascertained whether the proposed appointee is acceptable to the receiving state. The acquiescence of the receiving state is signified by its granting its agrément to the appointment. It is unusual for an agrément to be refused, but it occasionally happens.

Aide Mémoire – memo – Aide Mémoire

A written summary of the key points made by a diplomat in an official conversation. Literally, a document left with the other party to the conversation, either at the time of the conversation or subsequently, as an aid to memory.

Alternat – copie – Alternat

When an agreement is signed between two states, or among several states, each signatory keeps an official copy for itself. Alternat refers to the principle which provides that a state’s own name will be listed ahead of the other signatory, or signatories, in its own official copy. It is a practice devised centuries ago to handle sensitivities over precedence.

Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary ambassador extraordinary și plenipotențiar – Ambassadeur Extraordinaire et Plénipotentiel

The chief of a diplomatic mission; the ranking official diplomatic representative of his country to the country to which he is accredited, and the personal representative of his own head of state to the head of state of the host country. The term "extraordinary" has no real meaning.

Asylum – azil – réfuge

Used in diplomacy to mean the giving of refuge in two senses: first, within the extraterritorial grounds of an embassy (not generally done in American embassies); and second, when one states allows someone to live within its borders, out of reach of the authority of a second state from which the person seeks protection.

Attaché – atașat – Attaché

Civilian attachés are either junior officers in an embassy or, if more senior, officers who have a professional specialization such as "labor attaché", "commercial attaché", "cultural attaché", etc. On the military side, an embassy will generally have either an army attaché, naval attaché, or air attaché – and often all three. In American embassies, the senior of the three is called the defense attaché and is in charge of all military attaché activities. These consist largely of liaison work with local military authorities and of keeping informed on host country order of battle.

Belligerency – beligeranță – belligerence

A state of belligerency is a state of armed conflict. Belligerents are direct participants in the conflict.

Bilateral – Bilateral – Bilatéral

Bilateral discussions or negotiations are between a state and one other. A bilateral treaty is between one state and one other. "Multilateral" is used when more than two states are involved.

Breaking Relations – stoparea relațiilor diplomatice – stopper les relations diplomatiques.

The formal act of severing diplomatic relations with another state to underscore disapproval of its actions or policies. It is generally an unwise step, because when relations between states are most strained is when the maintaining of diplomatic relations is most important. It makes little sense to keep diplomats on the scene when things are going relatively well and then take them away when they are most needed. An intermediate step which indicates serious displeasure but stops short of an actual diplomatic break is for a government to recall its ambassador indefinitely. This is preferable to a break in relations as his embassy will continue to function; but again this comes under the heading of cutting one’s nose to spite one’s face. If a dramatic gesture of this kind is needed, it is far better promptly and publicly to recall an ambassador for consultations, and then just as promptly return him to his post.

Casus Belli – pretext de război – prétexte de guerre

An action by one state regarded as so contrary to the interests of another state as to be considered by that second state as a cause for war.

Chargé d’Affaires – împuternicit – Chargé d’Affaires

Formerly, a chargé d’affaires was the title of a chief of mission, inferior in rank to an ambassador or a minister. Today with the a.i. (ad interim) added, it designates the senior officer taking charge for the interval when a chief of mission is absent from his post.

Chief of Mission – șef de misiune – Chef de mission

The ranking officer in an embassy, permanent mission, legation, consulate general or consulate (i.e. an ambassador always, and a minister, consul general, or consul when no more senior officer is assigned to the post). A "chief of mission" can also be the head of a special and temporary diplomatic mission, but the term is usually reserved for the earlier listed examples.

Clearances – permitere – permission

A message or other document conveying a policy or an instruction is "cleared" in a foreign office, or large embassy, when all officials who have responsibility for any of its specific aspects have signified their approval by initialing it. Some officers gain a reputation for insisting on changing, even if only in minor ways, everything that is places before them – and it is occasionally alleged they would do so even if it were in the Ten Commandments being presented to them. Conversely, others are occasionally so casual that their clearance seems to mean only that the document in question does not appear to take away any of their jurisdiction. A clearance procedure in some form is essential for adequate coordination, but when overdone (as it often is), it can be a stifling, time-consuming process, and a bane of diplomatic life.

Communiqué – cumunicat – Communiqué

A brief public summary statement issued following important bilateral or multilateral meetings. These tend to be bland and full of stock phrases such as "full and frank discussions", and the like. Occasionally, getting an agreement on the communiqué turns out to be the most difficult part of the meeting.

Conciliation – conciliere – concilliation

An effort to achieve agreement and, hopefully, increased goodwill between two opposed parties.

Concordat – Concordat – Concordate

A treaty to which the Pope is a party.

Conference – conferință – conférance

International meetings. In the diplomatic sense, a congress has the same meaning as a conference.

Consular Agent – agent consular – agent consulaire

An official doing consular work for a nation in a locality where it does not maintain a regular consulate. This official is usually a national of his host state, and his work is usually part-time.

Consulate – consulat – consulate

An office established by one state in an important city of another state for the purpose of supporting and protecting its citizens traveling or residing there. In addition, these offices are charges with performing other important administrative duties such as issuing visas (where this is required) to host country nationals wishing to travel to the country the consulate represents.

Consulate General – Consulat General – Consulate Général

A bigger and more important consulate, presided over by a consul-general.

Convention – convenție – Convention

An agreement between two or more states, often more, concerning matters of common interest. While supposedly used for lesser matters than embraced in a treaty, it often deals with important subjects indeed – international postal and copyright laws, for example, of the law of the sea.

Counselor of Embassy – consilier al ambasadei – conséilleur de l'ambassade

A senior diplomatic title ranking just behind an ambassador and a minister. In many embassies there is no minister, and the counselor is the number two man, i.e., the deputy chief of mission. (In a very small embassy, the second may not have this rank). In a large embassy, the second ranking officer may be a minister, or minister-counselor, in which case the heads of the more important sections have counselor rank.

Credentials – scrisoare de acreditare – lettre d'accréditation

The name for letters given to an ambassador by his chief of state, and addressed to the chief of state of his host country. They are delivered to the latter by ambassadors in a formal credentials ceremony, which generally takes place shortly after his arrival at a new post. Until this ceremony has taken place he is not formally recognized by the host country, and he cannot officially act as an ambassador. The letters are termed "letters of credence" because they request the receiving chief of state to give "full credence" to what the ambassador will say of behalf of his government.

Declaration – declarație – Déclaration

This can have two quite distinct meanings in diplomacy. It can first, of course, mean a unilateral statement by one state, ranging from an expression of opinion or policy to a declaration of war. It can also mean a joint statement by two or more states having the same binding effect as a treaty. In this latter connection declarations can be put forward either in their own right or appended to a treaty as an added understanding or interpretation.

Delegation – delagație – Délégation

Again used in two senses in diplomacy. "Delegation" can be the term used to refer to the specific powers delegates by his government to a diplomat acting in certain specific circumstances.

Demarche – demarșă – Démarche

A very common term used by diplomats to indicate the official raising of a matter with host country officials, often accompanied by a specific request for some type of action or decision in connection with it.

Diplomatic Corps – corp diplomatic – corp diplomatique

The body of foreign diplomats assembled at a nation’s capital. In cities where consuls and consul general are resident, they are collectively known as the consular corps. The dean of both corps is usually that official who had been at his post the longest. There are exceptions to this later rule, however. For example, in some Catholic countries, the papal nuncio is always the dean.

Diplomatic Illness – îmbolnăvire diplomatică – maladie diplomatique

The practice of feigning illness to avoid participation in a diplomatic event of one kind or another and at the same time to avoid giving formal offense. "Diplomatic deafness" is a somewhat related concept whereby older diplomats allegedly turn this infirmity to advantage by not hearing what they prefer not to hear.

Diplomatic Immunity – imunitate diplomatică – immunité diplomatique

Exemption of foreign diplomatic agents or representatives from local jurisdiction. Also see Diplomatic Immunity.

Diplomatic Note – notă diplomatică – note diplomatique

A formal written means of communication among embassies.

Dual Accreditation – acreditare dublă – double accréditation

Having two or more responsibilities, such as an ambassador who is simultaneously accredited to two nations.

Economic Officer – atașat economic – attaché économique

A career diplomat who specialized in economics rather than political, administrative, or other matters.

Embassy – ambasadă – ambassade

The residence of an ambassador. In recent years, also inaccurately used to denote the building which contains the offices of the ambassador and other key members of his staff. The proper term for the latter, as noted above, is the "chancery". As also noted above, confusion is nowadays avoided through the practice of using the two terms "embassy residence" and "embassy office".

Entente – antantă – Entente

Denotes a close understanding between certain nations. It suggests mutual and complementary efforts, and a sense of compatible objectives. It can be agreed on orally or in writing, but as a concept is generally less binding than a treaty relationship.

Envoy – trimis – Envoy

Nowadays used to refer to any senior diplomat. Earlier it had a specific hierarchical connotation, being used to designate diplomatic agents of less than the highest rank.

Excellency – excelență – excellence

An archaic but still much-used title for addressing an ambassador. Theoretically, an American ambassador is not supposed to be addressed this way, but he generally is – along with all his other ambassadorial colleagues. "Mr. Ambassador" is more accurate and less silly. That he is; he may or may not be "excellent."

Exchange of Notes – schimb de note – écheange des notes

A common way of recording an agreement. The contents of the notes are, of course, agreed upon in advance by the two nations participating in the exchange.

Extradition – extrădare – extradition

The term for the process, governed by formally concluded agreements, by which fugitives fleeing justice from one country are returned from the country where they have sought refuge. It does not apply to political offenses.

Final Act – act final – Acte Final

A formal summary statement, drawn up at the conclusion of a conference.

Guarantee, Treaty of – tratad de garanție – traité de garantie

A treaty which requires signatories to guarantee that situations agreed upon will be maintained. The honoring of such commitments can precipitate armed conflicts.

High Commission – Înalta Comisie – La Haute Commission

A diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth country in another. For example, Canada has a High Commission in Canberra, Australia.

High Commissioner – Înaltul Comisar – Le Haute Commissaire

The chief of a high commission. Similar to what an ambassador is to an embassy.

Letters of Recall – scrisoare de rechemare – lettre de rappel

Also presented by a new ambassador, along with his letter of credence, to the chief of state of his host country during his credentials-presentation ceremony. Minister,

Minister-Counselor – Ministru-Consilier – Ministre Conseilleur

Apart from its cabinet-officer connotation (i.e. "foreign minister"), a minister has traditionally been a chief of diplomatic mission who headed a legation rather than an embassy. As so few legations are left, the title is now borrowed more and more to designate the second-ranking officer of a large embassy.

Mission – misiune – mission

A generic term for embassy. Mission also describes the entirety of official representation in a given foreign country which functions under the supervision of the Ambassador, including civilian and military personnel.

Passport – pașaport – passporte

The official document issued to a person by his/her government certifying citizenship and requesting foreign governments to grant the individual safe passage, lawful aid and protection while under that government's jurisdiction.

Persona Non Grata – Persona Non Grata – Persona Non Grata

An individual who is unacceptable to or unwelcome by the host government.

Precedence – prioritate – priorité

The right to superior honor on a ceremonial or formal occasion; for ambassadors in a country, precedence is determined by the order in which they presented their credentials to the host government.

Protocol – Protocol – Protocole

Refers to the ceremonial side of diplomacy, including matters of diplomatic courtesy and precedence. Also see Diplomatic Protocol.

Rapporteur – raportor – Rapporteur

The official of a committee or subcommittee whose job is to prepare a summary report of its discussions and conclusions.

Ratification – ratificare – ratification

The act, subsequent to a treaty’s having been negotiated, by which a government commits itself to adhere to that treaty. In the United States, it is inaccurate to speak of the Senate’s ratifying a treaty. The executive does this, but only after the Senate has given its consent.

Recognition – recunoaștere – reconnaissance

Commonly used in connection with the recognition by one state of 1) the existence of another state (for example when a new one is formed), or 2) the existence of a government which is in effective control of a state. The term "de facto recognition" means recognition that a state, or a government of a state, in fact exists – but it also means the withholding of full official recognition of this.

Treaty – tratat – traité

A formal mutually binding agreement between countries. The term comes from traiter, to negotiate.

Ultimatum – ultimatum – Ultimatum

A last statement indicating a final position. On occasion a prelude to the initiation of military action.

Unfriendly Act – act de neprietenie – acte de non amitié

A term used when one government wishes to tell another that an action the latter has taken is regarded as so serious that it might lead to a military action against it. An action which risks war.

Visa – viză – visa

Written authority to enter a country for either temporary or permanent residence, depending on its wording [12, online].

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. 350 p.

Fraser B. Idioms within a transformational grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. 428 p.

Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories. 2nd Ed. London & New York: Routledge, 2001. 519 p.

Samuellson–Brown, G. A Practical Guide for Translators. Clevedon, Philadelphia, Adelaide: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 2010. 317 p.

Dictionaries

Irimia, Marian. Dictionar Englez-Român. Chișinău: Cartier, 2011. 412p.

Plăcintar, Emilia. Dicționar englez-român, român-englez. Chișinău: Știința, 2010. 572 p.

Sheridan, Thomas. A General Dictionary of the English Language. London: Bloomsbury, 2005. 1403 p.

The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.1091 p.

Internet sources

English-Romanian dictionary available at http://www.dictionaryenglish romanian.com/ro/dictionar-englez-rom (visited, 15.04.2015)

Literary texts website available at http://tvtropes.org/ pmwiki /pmwiki. php/ Main/YouAreTheTranslatedForeignWord (visited, 30.04.2015)

Online general-purpose encyclopedia written in Romanian Language, available at http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Doilea_R%C4%83zboi_Mondial (visited, 15.11.2014)

Online glossary on diplomatic terminology databases available at http://blog.onehourtranslation.com/diplomatic-translation/translation-and-diplomacy/ (visited, 24.03.2015)

Web-based English-French, French-English online dictionary available at: http://en.pons.com/translate/english-french (visited, 24.04.2015)

ANNEX

Annex 1

STATEMENT*

regarding the originality of the contents of the License / Master’s Thesis

I, the undersigned ……………MIȚUL Anastasia…………………. in my capacity of graduate of Free International University of Moldova, Faculty of …Letters………………., specialty…English-French……, year of graduation………2015…………, declare on my own responsibility that the License / Master’s Thesis entitled Semantic Difficulties in the Terminological Units Translation Process (Case Study )…, which has been elaborated under the supervision of Mr. / Mrs. …Andrei BOLFOSU……..………… and is to be presented to a committee, is original and I am the sole author.

I hereby declare that I have not plagiarized any License / Master’s Theses, monographs, specialized works, articles, etc.; published or posted on Internet, as well as other biographical sources consulted in the process of the thesis elaboration for awarding License / Master title.

I declare that I agree to my License / Master’s Thesis being checked in any legal ways in order to assess its originality, thereof its content being introduced in a database for such purpose.

Date………………………………. Student’s signature…………………….……………

Annex 2

Annex 3

Annex 4

Glossary of historical and diplomacy terms

Accession – aderare – adhésion

The procedure by which a nation becomes a party to an agreement already in force between other nations

Accords – acord – accorde

International agreements originally thought to be for lesser subjects than covered by treaties , but now really treaties by a different name.

Ad Referendum – Ad Referendum – Ad Referendum

An agreement reached ad referendum means an agreement reached by negotiators at the table, subject to the subsequent concurrence of their governments.

Agrément – acord – agrément

Diplomatic courtesy requires that before a state appoints a new chief of diplomatic mission to represent it in another state, it must be first ascertained whether the proposed appointee is acceptable to the receiving state. The acquiescence of the receiving state is signified by its granting its agrément to the appointment. It is unusual for an agrément to be refused, but it occasionally happens.

Aide Mémoire – memo – Aide Mémoire

A written summary of the key points made by a diplomat in an official conversation. Literally, a document left with the other party to the conversation, either at the time of the conversation or subsequently, as an aid to memory.

Alternat – copie – Alternat

When an agreement is signed between two states, or among several states, each signatory keeps an official copy for itself. Alternat refers to the principle which provides that a state’s own name will be listed ahead of the other signatory, or signatories, in its own official copy. It is a practice devised centuries ago to handle sensitivities over precedence.

Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary ambassador extraordinary și plenipotențiar – Ambassadeur Extraordinaire et Plénipotentiel

The chief of a diplomatic mission; the ranking official diplomatic representative of his country to the country to which he is accredited, and the personal representative of his own head of state to the head of state of the host country. The term "extraordinary" has no real meaning.

Asylum – azil – réfuge

Used in diplomacy to mean the giving of refuge in two senses: first, within the extraterritorial grounds of an embassy (not generally done in American embassies); and second, when one states allows someone to live within its borders, out of reach of the authority of a second state from which the person seeks protection.

Attaché – atașat – Attaché

Civilian attachés are either junior officers in an embassy or, if more senior, officers who have a professional specialization such as "labor attaché", "commercial attaché", "cultural attaché", etc. On the military side, an embassy will generally have either an army attaché, naval attaché, or air attaché – and often all three. In American embassies, the senior of the three is called the defense attaché and is in charge of all military attaché activities. These consist largely of liaison work with local military authorities and of keeping informed on host country order of battle.

Belligerency – beligeranță – belligerence

A state of belligerency is a state of armed conflict. Belligerents are direct participants in the conflict.

Bilateral – Bilateral – Bilatéral

Bilateral discussions or negotiations are between a state and one other. A bilateral treaty is between one state and one other. "Multilateral" is used when more than two states are involved.

Breaking Relations – stoparea relațiilor diplomatice – stopper les relations diplomatiques.

The formal act of severing diplomatic relations with another state to underscore disapproval of its actions or policies. It is generally an unwise step, because when relations between states are most strained is when the maintaining of diplomatic relations is most important. It makes little sense to keep diplomats on the scene when things are going relatively well and then take them away when they are most needed. An intermediate step which indicates serious displeasure but stops short of an actual diplomatic break is for a government to recall its ambassador indefinitely. This is preferable to a break in relations as his embassy will continue to function; but again this comes under the heading of cutting one’s nose to spite one’s face. If a dramatic gesture of this kind is needed, it is far better promptly and publicly to recall an ambassador for consultations, and then just as promptly return him to his post.

Casus Belli – pretext de război – prétexte de guerre

An action by one state regarded as so contrary to the interests of another state as to be considered by that second state as a cause for war.

Chargé d’Affaires – împuternicit – Chargé d’Affaires

Formerly, a chargé d’affaires was the title of a chief of mission, inferior in rank to an ambassador or a minister. Today with the a.i. (ad interim) added, it designates the senior officer taking charge for the interval when a chief of mission is absent from his post.

Chief of Mission – șef de misiune – Chef de mission

The ranking officer in an embassy, permanent mission, legation, consulate general or consulate (i.e. an ambassador always, and a minister, consul general, or consul when no more senior officer is assigned to the post). A "chief of mission" can also be the head of a special and temporary diplomatic mission, but the term is usually reserved for the earlier listed examples.

Clearances – permitere – permission

A message or other document conveying a policy or an instruction is "cleared" in a foreign office, or large embassy, when all officials who have responsibility for any of its specific aspects have signified their approval by initialing it. Some officers gain a reputation for insisting on changing, even if only in minor ways, everything that is places before them – and it is occasionally alleged they would do so even if it were in the Ten Commandments being presented to them. Conversely, others are occasionally so casual that their clearance seems to mean only that the document in question does not appear to take away any of their jurisdiction. A clearance procedure in some form is essential for adequate coordination, but when overdone (as it often is), it can be a stifling, time-consuming process, and a bane of diplomatic life.

Communiqué – cumunicat – Communiqué

A brief public summary statement issued following important bilateral or multilateral meetings. These tend to be bland and full of stock phrases such as "full and frank discussions", and the like. Occasionally, getting an agreement on the communiqué turns out to be the most difficult part of the meeting.

Conciliation – conciliere – concilliation

An effort to achieve agreement and, hopefully, increased goodwill between two opposed parties.

Concordat – Concordat – Concordate

A treaty to which the Pope is a party.

Conference – conferință – conférance

International meetings. In the diplomatic sense, a congress has the same meaning as a conference.

Consular Agent – agent consular – agent consulaire

An official doing consular work for a nation in a locality where it does not maintain a regular consulate. This official is usually a national of his host state, and his work is usually part-time.

Consulate – consulat – consulate

An office established by one state in an important city of another state for the purpose of supporting and protecting its citizens traveling or residing there. In addition, these offices are charges with performing other important administrative duties such as issuing visas (where this is required) to host country nationals wishing to travel to the country the consulate represents.

Consulate General – Consulat General – Consulate Général

A bigger and more important consulate, presided over by a consul-general.

Convention – convenție – Convention

An agreement between two or more states, often more, concerning matters of common interest. While supposedly used for lesser matters than embraced in a treaty, it often deals with important subjects indeed – international postal and copyright laws, for example, of the law of the sea.

Counselor of Embassy – consilier al ambasadei – conséilleur de l'ambassade

A senior diplomatic title ranking just behind an ambassador and a minister. In many embassies there is no minister, and the counselor is the number two man, i.e., the deputy chief of mission. (In a very small embassy, the second may not have this rank). In a large embassy, the second ranking officer may be a minister, or minister-counselor, in which case the heads of the more important sections have counselor rank.

Credentials – scrisoare de acreditare – lettre d'accréditation

The name for letters given to an ambassador by his chief of state, and addressed to the chief of state of his host country. They are delivered to the latter by ambassadors in a formal credentials ceremony, which generally takes place shortly after his arrival at a new post. Until this ceremony has taken place he is not formally recognized by the host country, and he cannot officially act as an ambassador. The letters are termed "letters of credence" because they request the receiving chief of state to give "full credence" to what the ambassador will say of behalf of his government.

Declaration – declarație – Déclaration

This can have two quite distinct meanings in diplomacy. It can first, of course, mean a unilateral statement by one state, ranging from an expression of opinion or policy to a declaration of war. It can also mean a joint statement by two or more states having the same binding effect as a treaty. In this latter connection declarations can be put forward either in their own right or appended to a treaty as an added understanding or interpretation.

Delegation – delagație – Délégation

Again used in two senses in diplomacy. "Delegation" can be the term used to refer to the specific powers delegates by his government to a diplomat acting in certain specific circumstances.

Demarche – demarșă – Démarche

A very common term used by diplomats to indicate the official raising of a matter with host country officials, often accompanied by a specific request for some type of action or decision in connection with it.

Diplomatic Corps – corp diplomatic – corp diplomatique

The body of foreign diplomats assembled at a nation’s capital. In cities where consuls and consul general are resident, they are collectively known as the consular corps. The dean of both corps is usually that official who had been at his post the longest. There are exceptions to this later rule, however. For example, in some Catholic countries, the papal nuncio is always the dean.

Diplomatic Illness – îmbolnăvire diplomatică – maladie diplomatique

The practice of feigning illness to avoid participation in a diplomatic event of one kind or another and at the same time to avoid giving formal offense. "Diplomatic deafness" is a somewhat related concept whereby older diplomats allegedly turn this infirmity to advantage by not hearing what they prefer not to hear.

Diplomatic Immunity – imunitate diplomatică – immunité diplomatique

Exemption of foreign diplomatic agents or representatives from local jurisdiction. Also see Diplomatic Immunity.

Diplomatic Note – notă diplomatică – note diplomatique

A formal written means of communication among embassies.

Dual Accreditation – acreditare dublă – double accréditation

Having two or more responsibilities, such as an ambassador who is simultaneously accredited to two nations.

Economic Officer – atașat economic – attaché économique

A career diplomat who specialized in economics rather than political, administrative, or other matters.

Embassy – ambasadă – ambassade

The residence of an ambassador. In recent years, also inaccurately used to denote the building which contains the offices of the ambassador and other key members of his staff. The proper term for the latter, as noted above, is the "chancery". As also noted above, confusion is nowadays avoided through the practice of using the two terms "embassy residence" and "embassy office".

Entente – antantă – Entente

Denotes a close understanding between certain nations. It suggests mutual and complementary efforts, and a sense of compatible objectives. It can be agreed on orally or in writing, but as a concept is generally less binding than a treaty relationship.

Envoy – trimis – Envoy

Nowadays used to refer to any senior diplomat. Earlier it had a specific hierarchical connotation, being used to designate diplomatic agents of less than the highest rank.

Excellency – excelență – excellence

An archaic but still much-used title for addressing an ambassador. Theoretically, an American ambassador is not supposed to be addressed this way, but he generally is – along with all his other ambassadorial colleagues. "Mr. Ambassador" is more accurate and less silly. That he is; he may or may not be "excellent."

Exchange of Notes – schimb de note – écheange des notes

A common way of recording an agreement. The contents of the notes are, of course, agreed upon in advance by the two nations participating in the exchange.

Extradition – extrădare – extradition

The term for the process, governed by formally concluded agreements, by which fugitives fleeing justice from one country are returned from the country where they have sought refuge. It does not apply to political offenses.

Final Act – act final – Acte Final

A formal summary statement, drawn up at the conclusion of a conference.

Guarantee, Treaty of – tratad de garanție – traité de garantie

A treaty which requires signatories to guarantee that situations agreed upon will be maintained. The honoring of such commitments can precipitate armed conflicts.

High Commission – Înalta Comisie – La Haute Commission

A diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth country in another. For example, Canada has a High Commission in Canberra, Australia.

High Commissioner – Înaltul Comisar – Le Haute Commissaire

The chief of a high commission. Similar to what an ambassador is to an embassy.

Letters of Recall – scrisoare de rechemare – lettre de rappel

Also presented by a new ambassador, along with his letter of credence, to the chief of state of his host country during his credentials-presentation ceremony. Minister,

Minister-Counselor – Ministru-Consilier – Ministre Conseilleur

Apart from its cabinet-officer connotation (i.e. "foreign minister"), a minister has traditionally been a chief of diplomatic mission who headed a legation rather than an embassy. As so few legations are left, the title is now borrowed more and more to designate the second-ranking officer of a large embassy.

Mission – misiune – mission

A generic term for embassy. Mission also describes the entirety of official representation in a given foreign country which functions under the supervision of the Ambassador, including civilian and military personnel.

Passport – pașaport – passporte

The official document issued to a person by his/her government certifying citizenship and requesting foreign governments to grant the individual safe passage, lawful aid and protection while under that government's jurisdiction.

Persona Non Grata – Persona Non Grata – Persona Non Grata

An individual who is unacceptable to or unwelcome by the host government.

Precedence – prioritate – priorité

The right to superior honor on a ceremonial or formal occasion; for ambassadors in a country, precedence is determined by the order in which they presented their credentials to the host government.

Protocol – Protocol – Protocole

Refers to the ceremonial side of diplomacy, including matters of diplomatic courtesy and precedence. Also see Diplomatic Protocol.

Rapporteur – raportor – Rapporteur

The official of a committee or subcommittee whose job is to prepare a summary report of its discussions and conclusions.

Ratification – ratificare – ratification

The act, subsequent to a treaty’s having been negotiated, by which a government commits itself to adhere to that treaty. In the United States, it is inaccurate to speak of the Senate’s ratifying a treaty. The executive does this, but only after the Senate has given its consent.

Recognition – recunoaștere – reconnaissance

Commonly used in connection with the recognition by one state of 1) the existence of another state (for example when a new one is formed), or 2) the existence of a government which is in effective control of a state. The term "de facto recognition" means recognition that a state, or a government of a state, in fact exists – but it also means the withholding of full official recognition of this.

Treaty – tratat – traité

A formal mutually binding agreement between countries. The term comes from traiter, to negotiate.

Ultimatum – ultimatum – Ultimatum

A last statement indicating a final position. On occasion a prelude to the initiation of military action.

Unfriendly Act – act de neprietenie – acte de non amitié

A term used when one government wishes to tell another that an action the latter has taken is regarded as so serious that it might lead to a military action against it. An action which risks war.

Visa – viză – visa

Written authority to enter a country for either temporary or permanent residence, depending on its wording [12, online].

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