Dificultatile Gramaticale In Traducerea Textelor Terminologice

PROIECT DE LICENȚĂ

Dificultățile gramaticale în traducerea textelor

Terminologice (studiu de caz)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

I. GRAMMATICAL AND OTHER PECULIARITIES IN TRANSLATING MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

I.1. The concept of terminology and term

I.2. The main ways of translating medical terms/texts

I.3. Connections between English and Romanian Terminology in Medicine

II. PRACTICAL RESEARCH ON GRAMMATICAL PECULIARITIES OF PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS

II.1. Grammatical peculiarities of pharmaceutical texts

II.2. Pharmaceutical terminology analysed from grammatical and translational angle

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANNEX

INTRODUCTION

The practice in translation was performed from 10-th of November, until 10-th of December, 2014 at the “Dr. Vacarciuc-Farm”, which represents a pharmaceutical company and its headquarters are on Alexandru Cel Bun street, Chisinau.

Mr. Vacarciuc Denis was the direct supervisor of my translation practice. He had provided the texts to translate and also different tasks to perform.

I was introduced to the staff and assigned a special place with a computer to perform the translations at. The texts I had to translate were in a medical field. Medicine is a field of knowledge in accelerated scientific and technological development that each year incorporates a big number of new terms into the medical lexicon. Because of the need to quickly update their knowledge, health professionals learn directly in the original language of the publication and they stick to it in daily usage. For me it was difficult to translate them as for a lot of terms, it was not easy to find suitable corresponding terms in Romanian, thus making translation difficult.

Firstly, I was given a task to translate ten texts from native language to English language.

All Romanian texts were referring to the pharmacy field. What is a pharmacy? How does it work? Who can work there? What is the difference between pharmacies from different countries? These texts come up to answer all these questions and provide much more information.

During the translation of those texts I was able to find out useful new things. I may say that the level of difficulty was medium. I must have been accurate while translating into Romanian language. Sometimes a simple English sentence may became a long Romanian sentence, its structure itself has been changed and replaced by a composite sentence, or compound one. Generally, I met no big difficulties in translating those texts.

The second task was about to translate other 10 texts from Romanian into English language. I was given a document with a title “a guide to treatment and diagnosis of a Parkinson disease” the first text was about Parkinson disease and its symptoms. I found there various terms which I translated with medical dictionary online and I met those terms in the following texts as well.

Also, I translated the texts about the treatment of Parkinson disease. I met terms as medicine, drug's names, different new professionalisms. Also a big number of abbreviations. I could say that the level of difficulty of those texts was very high because they are very professional ones, referring strictly to the medicine domain.

During translation I used many dictionaries as: Oxford medical dictionary, Dicționar EnglezRomân, Român-Englez, Dicționar de Termeni Medicali and other online sources.

My glossary consists of the terms selected in the process of translation as well as other ones. They are written in alphabetical order so that they may be easier to use and find.

As a result of this activity I have learnt how to:

– Follow ethical codes that protect the confidentiality of information.

– Identify and resolve conflicts related to the meaning of words, concepts, practices or behaviors.

-Perform simultaneous and consecutive translations .

-Check the translations of terms and terminology to ensure that they are accurate and remain consistent throughout translation revisions.

-Read written materials, such as legal documents, scientific works or news reports, and rewrite material into specified languages.

-Refer to reference materials, such as dictionaries, lexicons, encyclopedias and computerized terminology banks, as needed to ensure translation accuracy.

-Compile terminology and information to be used in translations

As a conclusion I can say that In order to achieve a good translation of any terminological text, there should be followed the steps:

1. To analyze source text – detecting any gaps or inconsistencies, the misunderstandings of expression etc.;

2. Documentation – identifying sources of documentation in the specialized field, dictionaries, terminology databases for the field;

3. Extracting terms and phraseology of the source text, together with their contextual use;

4. Finding the definitions of extracting terms;

5. Establishing equivalents in the target language;

6. The translation itself;

7. Review of the translation;

8. Final Typing text in the target language.

The problems I met during this practice of translation was the issue of the translating medical language and terms. Especially words with abbreviation and long compound words. The existence of a great number of terms in medicine makes sometimes the work of the translator very difficult.

The second part of the Introduction deals with the licence project thus, the topic of our project is: Grammatical Difficulties in the Translation of Terminological Texts.

The actuality of the topic resides in the fact that in recent decades one has recorded a sharp increased interest of linguists and specialists in various fields of science and technology, which is explained by growing scientific and technical information and by increasingly-growing processes of terminology development.

The present work is dedicated to the study of Grammatical Difficulties in the Translation of Terminological Texts in English and Romanian languages. The texts that are going to be studied include medical and pharmaceutical terminology.

Currently, the translation of medical texts is still in high demand, due to the active promotion of the Moldova market of foreign drugs, procedures, and medical equipment. Undoubtedly, this kind of scientific and technical translation is associated with greater responsibility because sometimes the accuracy of the translation depends on the health and lives of people. Therefore, high-quality translation of medical

directions from English into Romanian requires professionalism, knowledge in a particular field of medicine, as well as knowledge of the specific nature of the subject of these texts.

The Aim of the project is to identify the grammatical difficulties in the translation of the terminological texts. Taking into account the above aim, we have set up the following objectives:

To Identify the major difficulties of texts translation on this topic;

To make a practical analysis of the translated texts;

To make a grammatical analysis of the translated texts and their topical terminology;

To conduct a statistical survey upon different aspects of the terminology translation;

5. To compile a glossary of the topical terminological units referring to the field of pharmaceutics, medicine, biology, etc.

In order to fulfill the above aim and objectives, the structure of the project is aimed at providing a careful theoretical and practical research on the topic. This work consists of Introduction, two chapters, conclusions, a bibliography list and annexes.

The first chapter is going to explore theoretical information on the general notion of terminology and terms, on main ways of medical terms translation and what connections may be between English and Romanian terminology in medicine.

In the second chapter we will analyze the main problems arising in the translation of English medical and pharmaceutical texts whereby we will analyse a sample of a specialized text and its translation as well as a list of terminological units, we will classify each term according to its grammatical category, after that we will give the definition and a commentary where we mention about difficulties in translation of those terms, technique of translation and other peculiarities.

In conlusion section of the study, we will summarize and formulate a conclusion and recommendations based on our translation practice as well as on the theoretical and practical surveys concerning the grammatical difficulties in the terminology translation.

Bibliography consists of twelve sources we have worked with, thus we have four theoretical books of different authors, four dictionaries and four online sources that were of help in order to perform our project.

Annex section consists of glossary of medical and pharmaceutical terms with definition and translation in Romanian and Korean languages, also will insert the antiplagiarism statement, a diagram reffering to the techniques of translation we have used during translation terms.

GRAMMATICAL AND OTHER PECULIARITIES IN TRANSLATING MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY

This chapter deals with a theoretical survey of terminology and terms and here we will mention different aspects of the terms as well as of translation techniques. Its aim is to identify some difficulties and peculiarities that we have to face while translating specialized texts and it will help us to be accurate and serious in our translation and thus to perform professional and correct translation being aware of the fact that in the field of medicine, because of the correct translation may depends people’s health that is the most important.

I.1. The concept of terminology and term

Terminology represents the study of terms and their use. This study can be limited to one language or can cover more than one language at the same time (multilingual terminology, bilingual terminology). Terminology constitutes the largest part of every language vocabulary. The terminology of a language is formed of many systems of terms. Arnold I.V in his book Lexicology define a term as follows: “We shall call a term any word or word-group used to name a notion characteristic of some special field of knowledge, industry or culture. The scope and content of the notion that a ‘term serves to express are specified by definitions in literature on the subject.”[1, p.229].

”A term is a word or expression denoting a concept in a particular activity, job, or profession. Terms are frequently associated with professionalisms. Terms are considered to have one sense in one field. “[3, p.125].

So, the term represents a unit of a specific natural or artificial language, it may be a word, phrase, an abbreviation, a symbol, a combination of words and letters-symbols, a combination of words and numbers-symbols having as a result of a special conscious collective agreement with specific terminological meaning, which can be expressed either verbally or in some form of formalized way. It completely reflects the basic and essential attributes corresponding concept.

The main requirement for the term – its unambiguity. There are two types of terms: 1) scientific and technical terms 2) Special (nomenclature) terms. Scientific and technical terms, express the general concepts of science and technology. The terms do not simply exist in the language, but is included in certain terminology. Terminology as the system of scientific terms, is a subsystem within a common lexical system. The term does not require a context, as a common word, since it is a) a member of a specific terminology that stands instead context; b) can be used in isolation, for example in texts registers or in technique orders.

The origin of terms shows several main channels, three of which are specific for terminology. [1, p. 232].

These specific ways are:

1. The arrangement of terminological phrases with resulting clipping, ellipsis, blending, abbreviation: transistor receiver → transistor → trannie; television text → al system. The term does not require a context, as a common word, since it is a) a member of a specific terminology that stands instead context; b) can be used in isolation, for example in texts registers or in technique orders.

The origin of terms shows several main channels, three of which are specific for terminology. [1, p. 232].

These specific ways are:

1. The arrangement of terminological phrases with resulting clipping, ellipsis, blending, abbreviation: transistor receiver → transistor → trannie; television text → teletext; ecological architecture → ecotecture; [1,p. 232]

2. The utilization of combining forms from Latin and Greek like microfilm, aerodynamics, cyclotron, telegenic, telegraph, telemechanics, supersonic. The process is normal to terminology in numerous languages.

3. Borrowing from another terminological framework within the same language whenever there is any point affinity between the respective fields. For example, sea terminology lent a large number of words to aviation vocabulary and which in its turn made the starting point for the terminology adopted in the conquest of space. If we look back to linguistics, we may come across many terms borrowed from rhetoric: metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche and others.

The translation of medical texts – or medical translation is a translation from one language to the other specialized medical publications and texts of a private nature, contents of which are directly related to human health. Medical terminology is one of the specific layers of vocabulary occupying special place in the language that is explained by its structural and semantic features, word-formation and stylistic features. It is one of the oldest professional terminology, which was formed to own language-based, learning all, that at the time of its creation has developed the world civilization.

I.2. The main ways of translating medical terms/text

Transcription represents a method of writing sound (usually for loan terms). It is very important to make a difference between phonetic and practical transcription. Phonetic transcription refers to the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human language while practical transcription is a way based on the regular letters of each alphabet: phenomenon- fenomen.

Transliteration is defined as the spelling of the word in another alphabet, often associated with transcription. However, strictly speaking, the concept of transliteration based on the representation of written characters of one language into the characters of another language. For instance: hematoma–hematom(rom.), osteodystrophy-osteodistrofie(rom.), myocarditis- miocardita(rom.) Chlamydia-Clamidia(rom.)

However, when using this method a translator should be aware of ‘false friends’, that is words similar in form but different in meaning, for example:

Potent pathogen (for bacteria) – we do not translate in Romanian as "potențial", but “puternic”, that is just – “patogen puternic”.

The word ’Symptomatic’ can mean not only ‘simptomatic’ in Romanian language but also with clinical manifestations, such as: symptomatic hypertension – 'hipertensiune arteriala' with clinical manifestations, and not "hipertensiune arterială symptomatică", but symptomatic therapy we translate as: ''tratament simptomatic''.

Calque translation a method that is applied to translating compound terms or term phrases, a literal translation at phrase level: for instance: intravenously-intravenos; preanalysis- analiză prealabilă; structural system analysis- analiza structurala de sistem;

Inversion represents the most frequency transformation for word combinations: Abell-Kendall modification- modificare Abell-Kendall; Down Sindrome- Sindromul Down.

Explicatory (descriptive) translation and expansion are also used when operating with medical terms. This technique is applied for verbalizing new objects, not existing in the target language, for example: Fertility drug- medicament pentru stimularea fertilitatii

Grammar Transformation is a morphological or syntactical changes in translated units.[3,p.40] They are separated into the following types:

1. Grammar replacement when a grammar construction of the translated part changes. A passive voice form can be translated by an active voice verb form: You are invited to send your papers to the given address. –Va invitam sa trimiteti documentele la adresa data.

2. Word order change. The surge in the number of asthma cases may be linked to rising levels of obesity, doctors say. – Medicii consideră că creșterea bruscă a numărului de cazuri de astmă se datorează creșterii numărului de oameni obezi.

3.Sentence partitioning- represent substitution of a simple sentence with complex sentence or a complex sentence with several independent sentences.-I want you to understand this lesson. – As dori,ca voi sa intelegeti aceasta lectie.

4.Sentence integration means a contrary transformation, making out from 2 sentence one simple sentence, for instance: If one knows languages, one can come out on top. –Stiind limbile, poti sa ajungi departe.

5. Grammar compensation-this method allows translators to convey the idea of the original text precisely when the Romanian language standards do not permit the translator to place a word in the same position or use it in the same function as in SL text: No avenues in this matter were left unexplored- Totul a fost facut pentru a solutiona problema in cauza. [3,p.40,41]

I.3. Connections between English and Romanian Terminology in Medicine

The Romanian language went through a big change from a well-known wooden language before the communist times to dynamic and new language. Nowadays, Romanian language is being under the English language influence more than ever. Since the English is now the most used language in the most prominent influence on the Romanian medical language has been that of English, some old Latin terms got replaced by the new English terms. An important area for translation studies represents the translation of medical terms from Romanian into English. European languages (all) share the same Greco-Latin roots in the medical terminology. The preservation of the Latin language as the language of sciences until the 19th century, contributed to a great range of lexical similarities in medical nomenclature, and its effects can be observed until today. The knowledge of the Latin roots helps professionals in the field of medicine to understand medical texts in different languages. The “Anglicization” of Latin medical terms was a beneficial technique because of the English language’s two roots, Saxon and Romance: Latin-Adjuvantus, English- Adjuvant, Romanian –Adjuvant, L. Bronchia E.Bronchus , R. Bronhii L.Capsula E.Capsula R.Capsula.

Since the Romanian language is a Romance language, there are many similarities between the Romanian and English language as seen above and in our glossary.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH ON GRAMMATICAL PECULIARITIES OF PHARMACEUTICAL TEXTS

Grammar is a very important aspect of terminological texts. As we all know, specialized texts featuring specific terminological units are very strict in the sense that the translation of the grammar forms is important in order to render the right meaning of the text. Usually such kind of texts do not use too complicated grammatical structures as for the tenses used, commonly the simple present tense, simple future and simple past are used. But there could be other traps that the translator could encounter such as the use of prepositions in a proper manner, phrasal verbs, certain negative adverbials before the sentence, etc. In section we plan to analyse a terminological text as for its main terminological units, grammatical structure, and the difficulties of translation. In the second part of the second chapter, the terminology itself is going to be analysed from its grammatical, translational, and etymological angle. Besides the above analysis, we shall also utter our comments on the difficulties of translation, techniques of translation or certain specific peculiarities concerning the terms in question.

II.1. Grammatical peculiarities of pharmaceutical texts

Pharmaceutical text sample (original)

What does the BLACK TRIAGLE mean?

The European Union (EU) has introduced a new way of identifying medicines that are being monitored particularly closely. These medicines have a black inverted triangle displayed in their package leaflet, together with a short sentence that reads:

All medicines are carefully monitored after they are placed on the EU market. However, medicines with the black triangle are being monitored even more closely than others. This is generally because there is less information available about them compared with other medicines, for example because they are new on the market. It does not mean that the medicine is unsafe. How to report side effects

You should report any suspected side effects with a medicine you are taking, particularly if it displays the black triangle. You can report side effects to your doctor, pharmacist or nurse. You can also report side effects directly to your national medicines regulator, using the reporting system in your country. Information on how to do this can be found in the package leaflet of your medicine or on your national medicines regulator's website. By reporting side effects, you can help medicines regulators assess whether the benefits of a medicine remain greater than its risks.

Why are medicines monitored after they are approved?

European regulatory authorities decide to authorize medicines after assessing the results of laboratory tests and clinical trials. Only medicines whose benefits have been shown to be greater than their risks can be marketed. This ensures that patients can access the treatments they need without being exposed to unacceptable side effects. Clinical trials usually involve a limited number of patients for a defined time period in controlled conditions.

In a real-life setting, a larger and more diverse group of patients will use the medicine. They may have other diseases and they may be taking other medicines. Some less common side effects may only be apparent when a medicine has been used for a long time by a large number of people. It is therefore vital that the safety of all medicines continues to be monitored while they are on the market. Examples of medicines under additional monitoring include new medicines authorized since the start of 2011 and medicines for which regulators require more studies to be carried out, e.g. on long-term use or on rare side effects seen in clinical trials.

Pharmaceutical text sample (translation)

Ce înseamna TRIUNGHIUL NEGRU?

Uniunea Europeană (UE) a introdus o nouă metodă de identificare a medicamentelor monitorizate deosebit de atent. Aceste medicamente se identifică printr-un triunghi negru cu vârful în jos prezent în prospect și printr-o propoziție scurtă ce explică semnificația triunghiului respectiv:

Toate medicamentele sunt monitorizate cu atenție după ce sunt lansate pe piața Uniunii Europene. Cu toate acestea, medicamentele marcate cu un triunghi negru sunt supuse unei monitorizări mult mai atente decât restul medicamentelor. În general, aceasta se datorează faptului că se dispune de mai puține informații despre aceste medicamente comparativ cu restul medicamentelor. Ca de exemplu, in cazul celor nou lansate pe piață. Acest lucru nu înseamnă că medicamentul nu este sigur.

Cum să raportați o reacție adversă

Trebuie să raportați orice reacții adverse suspectate asociate cu un medicament care vă este administrat, în special dacă acesta prezintă triunghiul negru. Puteți raporta reacțiile adverse medicului, farmacistului sau asistentei medicale. De asemenea, puteți raporta reacții adverse direct autorității naționale de reglementare în domeniul medicamentelor din țara dumneavoastră, folosind sistemul de raportare disponibil. Informații despre cum să procedați sunt disponibile în prospectul medicamentului sau pe site-ul web al autorității naționale de reglementare în domeniul medicamentelor din țara dumneavoastră. Raportând reacțiile adverse, puteți ajuta autoritățile de reglementare să evalueze dacă beneficiile unui medicament rămân mai mari decât riscurile asociate.

De ce sunt monitorizate medicamentele după ce sunt aprobate?

Autoritățile europene de reglementare decid să autorizeze medicamentele după ce au evaluat rezultatele obținute în urma analizelor de laborator și a studiilor clinice. Sunt comercializate doar acele medicamente ale căror beneficii s-au dovedit a fi mai mari decât riscurile asociate. Astfel se garantează accesul pacienților la tratamentele de care au nevoie fără expunerea lor la reacții adverse inacceptabile. Studiile clinice cuprind, de obicei, un număr limitat de pacienți pentru o perioadă determinată, în condiții controlate.

În realitate, un medicament va fi utilizat de un grup mai mare și mult mai divers de pacienți. Se poate ca aceștia să sufere și de alte afecțiuni și să fie tratați cu alte medicamente. Este posibil ca unele reacții adverse mai puțin întâlnite să apară doar după ce medicamentul a fost utilizat o perioadă lungă de timp, de către un mare număr de oameni. Prin urmare, este important să se continue monitorizarea siguranței tuturor medicamentelor atunci când acestea se află pe piață. Printre medicamentele supuse unei monitorizări suplimentare se numără și medicamentele noi autorizate începând cu 2011, precum și medicamente pentru care autoritățile de reglementare solicită efectuarea de studii suplimentare, ca de exemplu studii legate de utilizarea pe termen lung sau concentrate pe reacțiile adverse rare observate în studiile clinice.

Above we have inserted an original English text about new medicines emerging on the European Union market. As we can notice this text refers to a sample of medical and pharmaceutical context. The tenses used in the text are examples of basic tenses like Present Simple Tense, Past Simple Tense, Future Simple tense, and occasionally, the Present Perfect Tenses. Their equivalents in Romanian do not differ too much and thus in Romanian we have the equivalents of those tenses hence we have Prezentul Indicativului; Perfectul Compus and Viitorul forma I and as for the English Present Perfect, it is occasionally translated into Romanian via Prezentul Indicativului, consider the example: Clinical trials have been conducted…. can be translated using different tenses in Romanian – Testele clinice sunt conduse or au fost conduse. It all depends on the use of modifier following the said sentence. Thus, if in the English the sentence were: Clinical trials have been conducted since last year the translation into Romanian would be: Testele clinice sunt conduse. While the sentence: Clinical trials have already been conducted – Testele clinice au fost deja conduse.

In the text above, there are no phraseological units that could pose certain problems in the process of translation. The language of the text allows no interpretation because it describes precise facts that need to be clearly understood by the target reader and in order to achieve this, a simple language without equivoques is used.

The uniform distribution of tenses and semantic units makes us believe and make the conclusion that the text above is a sample of a scientific text.

II.2. Pharmaceutical terminology analysed from grammatical and translational angle

The present subchapter deals with a practical research in the field of pharmaceutical and medical terminology. The research into the terminology will bear upon the following aspects: an entry is given in the forefront, then the grammatical category and the etymology of the term in question are being sought. Afterwards, the translation into Romanian and Korean are given which are followed by a short commentary how the term is translated. One of the main purposes of this research is to reveal different cases of difficulties of translation due to grammatical inflections in different languages.

Antibody (n); etymology – Latin, English [10, online]; Romanian translation – Anticorp [5, p.83]; Korean translation –항체[12, online].

Definition: Another name for immunoglobulin and in fact represents a large Y-shaped protein and which is produced by the plasma cells. Antibodies are used by the immune system to look for, find and annihilate possible damages caused by viruses, infections, bacteria and other diseases [8, p.202].

Commentary: The case in question is characterized by the fact that the noun from English has been translated using nouns in both, Romanian and Korean languages. Interestingly, many internationalized words which use the suffix anti, are pronounced the same regardless of the writing, the same goes with Korean, but in this specific case, pronunciation is different. And this fact leads us to the idea that the Korean equivalent of the term has been nationalized and international words or suffixes have been removed. Instead it uses 항 standing for term, body, and 체 standing for screen, protecting. As for the translation technique, we have used the method of calque translation for the case of the Romanian languages and calque plus elements of grammatical transformations.

Amino Acids (adj+n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Amino acizi [5, p.75]; Korean translation –아미노산[12, online].

Definition: Amino acids are organic building blocks which are composed of NH2 and carboxylic acid. Amino acids are the building blocks of the proteins and are intermediary in the process of a living being metabolism [8, p.180].

Commentary: What is to add as of grammatical peculiarities of the term submitted under analysis, is that in English there is a syntagm made up of two words, while in Romanian we have a single word although a compound one. A very rare case, because usually English features highly compound words which are translated into Romanian using several words or even phrases or sentences. As for Korean we have the first part which represents an international suffix 아미노 which sounds amino and the second one which is a bunch of sounds made up of letters산 that approximately sound like acid. Thus Korean language has adapted an international word written in letters which mean different sounds.

Antibiotic (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – antibiotic [5, p.80]; Korean translation –항생 물질[12, online].

Definition: An antibiotic is a substance which has as its active agent a fungus usually on the basis of penicillin or other penicillin-derived modern synthetic active agent. It is usually used to remove, kill or weaken pathologic microorganisms or viruses in any living organisms [8, p.197].

Commentary: The noun antibiotic in English has been translated via the method of transliteration into Romanian. As for the Korean, the direct translation into Korean of international words, which sound the same in the Korean language is always the process of transliteration. Here we used transcription. 항생 sounds like anti and 물질 sounding -mulchil and having the meaning of substance.

Bacteria (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Bacterii [5, p.117]; Korean translation –박테리아[12, online].

Definition: Bacteria are representatives of very small prokaryotic organisms [8, p.274].

Commentary: As for the term above we have used the technique of calque translation with elements of transliteration, as for translation into the Romanian language, as for the Korean, the technique of transcription has been used.

Biocide (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Biocid, Pesticid [5, p.134]; Korean translation – 살 생물 제[12, online].

Definition: Biocide is any substance containing poisonous substances or antibodies aimed at killing living organisms. It may also refer to any event with the destructive energy powerful enough to destroy living creatures [8, p.311].

Commentary: Besides the technique of calque and transliteration that we have used, there is also a sense duality while translating into Romanian because dictionary also gives the meaning of pesticide besides the basic one of the biocid. In Korean the same technique of transcription, but the pronunciation in this case is closer to the original.

Bioactivity (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Bioactivitate [9, online]; Korean translation – 생체 활성[12, online].

Definition: Bioactivity is that kind of activity which involves development, movement, reproduction, deploying living activities like eating assimilating liquids etc. which is related to living organisms like viruses, bacteria, fungi, plants, animals [8, p.308].

Commentary: The noun Bioactivity is translated into Romanian and Korean via the technique of calque translation. This time Korean pronounces this word by other means than the transcription, it seems to be a Korean born word.

Biosynthesis (n); etymology – Latin, Greek [10, online]; Romanian translation – Biosinteză [9, online]; Korean translation – 생합성[12, online].

Definition: Biosynthesis is an anabolic process whereby enzymes catalyze the emergence of chemical substances by the processes which take place in living organisms, thus, as a product of animals’ breathing is the CO2 [8, p.319].

Commentary: The noun biosynthesis is translated as noun too into Romanian and Korean using the technique of calque translation in both above-mentioned languages.

Carcinogenic (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Cancerogen [9, online]; Korean translation – 발암 성[12, online].

Definition: Carcinogenic is an adjective relating to different substances that can be contained in food we eat, in the water we drink as well as in the air we breathe and which may trigger the process of an uncontrolled cell division as a response of the immune system to the above-said noxious agent [8, p.422].

Commentary: In both, Korean and Romanian the adjective carcinogenic has been translating into the same grammatical category by the means of calque translation.

Cell Culture (n+n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Cultură de cellule [9, online]; Korean translation – 세포 배양[12, online].

Definition: Cell culture is a breed of cells or a certain monoculture of building blocks of life which are grown in laboratory because in natural conditions monocultures are inevitably contaminated by other cell cultures. Such monocultures are used in genetic and medical purposes in order to grow different tissues or genetically modify one of the functions [8, p.503].

Commentary: The syntagm which uses two words is being translated via the calque translation using complex grammatical transformation in the case of Romanian and calque translation in the case of the Korean language.

Dermal (adj); etymology – Greek [10, online]; Romanian translation – Dermic [9, online]; Korean translation – 피부[12, online].

Definition: Dermal is an adjective that refers to the skin of animals [8, p.658].

Commentary: The adjective dermal is translated into Romanian using the transliteration and calque techniques. As for the Korean, the Greek equivalent for the adjective dermal misses, so the Korean uses the variant of the noun which means skin or leather. This is also due to the fact that the Korean language does not belong to a larger family of Indo-European languages which extensively uses Greek or Latin words and suffixes for scientific purposes, hence the different translation.

Drug (n); etymology – English [10, online]; Romanian translation – Drog, medicament [9, online]; Korean translation –마약[12, online].

Definition: A drug is a natural or a synthetized substance which is used to stop or accelerate different bodily functions and is used for medical purposes [8, p.669].

Commentary: The noun drug has been translated into Romanian and Korean through the same grammatical category, while the technique of translation is the calque. Another impediment is of sematic origin it refers to the fact that the term drug has a double meaning but having a common definition. So one meaning refers to medicines another to narcotics that is why the translator should be very careful to the context when performing the translation. This is one of rare cases of the occurrence of synonymy in scientific specialized terminology besides the etymological doublets.

Emulsion (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Emulsie [9, online]; Korean translation – 유제[12, online].

Definition: An emulsion is a substance made up of other different substances using reactive chemicals and used for different purposes as photography, cosmetics, medicine and pharmaceutics [8, p.946].

Commentary: In English Romanian and Korean the word described as emulsion in English, is a noun, and the technique of translation that has been used in this case is the calque translation in both Romanian and Korean language.

Genetic Engineering (adj+n); etymology – Latin, English [10, online]; Romanian translation – Inginerie genetică [9, online]; Korean translation – 유전 공학[12, online].

Definition: Genetic engineering is a branch of medicine and biology that studies the possibilities to modify the genes and the structure of the DNA for the subsequent modifications of living organisms [8, p.1150].

Commentary: For the case of the syntagm above which consists of two elements, talking about the Romanian language, we have used the technique of calque translation with elements of complex grammatical transformation as the adjective in Romanian, unlike in English, follows the word it determines, while in English the determiner usually precedes the determined word. In the case of the Korean language, the pure calque technique has been used.

Gene (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Genă [9, online]; Korean translation – 유전자 [12, online].

Definition: A gene is a part of the organism structure where the Deoxyribonucleic Acid is contained. On the gene, the traits like physical appearance and behavioral patterns depend. Any mutation in the gene brings the changes to the next generations [8, p.1171].

Commentary: The term gene has been translated into Romanian by means of transliteration technique while in Korean calque translation technique.

Infectious Diseases (adj+n); etymology – Latin, English [10, online]; Romanian translation – Boli infecțioase [9, online]; Korean translation – 감염증[7, p.214].

Definition: An infectious disease is a pathology which is characterized by severe dysfunctions in all systems of the living organism. The main characteristic of such a disease is that it is provoked by an agent like viruses or bacteria and is transmitted from one living organism to another [6, p.197].

Commentary: The word combination underlined above has been translated into Romanian by means of complex grammatical transformation and in Korean via the adaptation technique as 감 means feeling and 염- infection.

Liposome (n); etymology – Latin[10, online]; Romanian translation – liposomă [9, online]; Korean translation – 리포좀[7, p.299].

Definition: A liposome is an artificial tiny bubble composed with the same material as the cell, and it can be filled with different drugs and medicines in order to heal different tumors in the animals’ bodies [6, p.283].

Commentary: Translating into Romanian the term above was not difficult as the technique of transliteration was used, interestingly, while translating into the Korean language we have used the technique of transcription as the term sounds lipojom in Korean. The first symbols 리포 mean reports and 좀 – just.

Microcapsule (n); etymology – Greek, Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Microcapsulă [9, online]; Korean translation – 마이크로 캡슐[7, p.321].

Definition: A microcapsule is an artificial casing where medications are inserted in order to be transported through small arteria and deliver the substance to different organs. It can also be used in recording purposes [6, p.290].

Commentary: Transliteration with elements of transcription and calque has been used for the Romanian translation. When we have translated into Korean the usual technique of transcription, consider the following:마이크로 sounds as micro and 캡슐 sounds capsule.

National Drug Code (NDC) (adj+n+n); etymology – Latin, English, Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Codul Național al Medicamentelor [9, online]; Korean translation –국가 의약품 코드[12, online].

Definition: A medication codification standard by the American Agency for Drug Manufacturing and Selling Regulation. It is aimed at preventing the counter-faction and selling drugs on a higher than allowed price [6, p.305].

Commentary: The term shown above, is a complex noun phrase and translating it into Romanian is not an easy task because the determined word is situated at the end in English phrase, while in Romanian it holds the first position in the equivalent of such a phrase, thus complex grammatical transformations are needed. In Korean the determined word remains in the end being translated via transcription and national drug is translated via calque technique as 국가의약품

Penicillin (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Penicilină [9, online]; Korean translation – 페니실린[7, p.352].

Definition: The penicillin is an antibiotic which was the first one to be discovered and prepared out of yeasts and other fungi. It served as a basis for the subsequent development of synthetic antibiotics to which viruses hardly develop a defence [6, p.328].

Commentary: Here we have the example of the word for word translation or calque and the technique of transcription in Romanian language with sounds same as in original language.

Suppository (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Supozitoriu [5, p.720]; Korean translation – 좌약[7, p.429].

Definition: A suppository is a hard wax-like cylindrical object whose purpose is to be used mainly in the fore anus in order to cure different diseases as hemorrhoids [6, p.357].

Commentary: seemingly the noun suppository has all the characteristics of an adjective, especially the postfix tory. The dictionary in fact states that this is a noun and should hence be translated as such in both languages. In this way we have the partially calque partially transliteration in case of the Romanian language and calque in case of Korean.

Vitamin (n); etymology – Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – Vitamină [5, p.898]; Korean translation – 비타민[7, p.434].

Definition: A vitamin is an organic compound made up of chemicals that are very useful to the living organisms in certain amounts. In most common cases vitamin are acids that helps people or other animals get the necessary elements for survival [6, p.392].

Commentary: The term above has been translated into Romanian via the name under the technique of calque translation while into the Korean we have used the technique of transcription whereby we have the term 비(ratio) and 민 the phonetic designation for (min).

Xenobiotic (n); etymology – Greek, Latin [10, online]; Romanian translation – xenobiotic [5, p.982]; Korean translation – 생체 이물 [7, p.441].

Definition: A xenobiotic is a foreign chemical substance as pesticides, carcinogens etc. that can cause harm to the body or organism in which it has penetrated [6, p.482].

Commentary: The term xenobiotic has been translated into Romanian via the pure technique of transliteration while translating into the Korean language we used the technique of adaptation: 생체 -biological and 이물 -different thing.

Here our practical chapter ends. We have performed a thorough research into the pharmaceutical and medical terminology under the grammatical and translational angles. We have analysed the techniques of translation from English into the Romanian and Korean languages. Along this research we have come across different difficulties and interesting ideas which are going to be mirrored in the conclusion of our paper. We have also coined a new term as for the techniques of translation.

We firmly believe that the practical study performed in this section of our project paper allows us to come up with conclusions and practical recommendations concerning the translation and the grammatical difficulties in translating the pharmaceutical terminological units.

CONCLUSION

After having performed the translation practice within Dr. Vacarciuc-Farm Company, where we had to translate different materials related to the pharmaceutics and medicine. After having performed a theoretical research on the grammatical difficulties in translating the pharmaceutical terminology and a practical study based on the theoretical research, we are now able to provide conclusions and practical recommendations based on the subject matter of our licence project.

The tаsk of а trаnslаtor is not аn eаsy one. Throughout my license prаctice, I leаrnt thаt the trаnslаtor should perform а hаrd work in order to mаke а perfect trаnslаtion. Speаking аbout the pharmaceutical and medicаl terminology I deаlt with, I would like to mention thаt it is rаther difficult, аs every term is а reаl chаllenge аnd it should be seаrched in mаny speciаlized dictionаries of pharmaceutics and medicine.

I hаve аlso leаrnt thаt it is quite difficult to work within а teаm without interаcting with its members. Thus а strong аnd good relаtionship bаsed on mutuаl respect аnd help is а key-point in аchieving success in the field of self аnd professionаl development.

Sometimes, speciаlized pаper-bаsed dictionаries could not be of greаt help becаuse some terms like аotidаe, virophаge, xenopsyllа etc., аre relаtively new terms аppeаred in the corpus of medicаl terminology, while certаin medicаl dictionаries which аppeаred eаrlier could not help. Only internet contаins such terms аnd the trаnslаtion could аlso be found using internet resources thus the terms аbove trаnslаte аs fаmiliа аotidаe, virofаg аnd xenopsyllа. These exаmples leаd us to the next conclusion.

Newly invented terms аs the ones described in the pаrаgrаph аbove, аre due to the discoveries in the field of pharmaceutics and medicine аnd once their publicаtion аllowed in internаtionаl mаgаzines of medicine, they spreаd very fаst due to the communicаtion technologies widely аvаilаble. Thus, nаtionаl terminologicаl systems hаve not enough time to develop equivаlent terminology, аnd the method of borrowing is used, employing the techniques of trаnscription, trаnsliterаtion, blueprint trаnslаtion, or in case of the Korean another one we shall talk later in this section.

Generаlly there were no problems in trаnslаting medicаl pharmaceutical and terminology, аs the objects, illnesses, phenomenа, diаgnoses, drugs, etc., hаve direct correspondence in аny lаnguаge's medicаl terminologicаl system. Thus diаgnosis is diаgnoză, tuberculosis is tuberculoză, cold is răceаlă, аnd аspirin is аspirină, even sore throаt hаs its equivаlent аs dureri de gît. We conclude thаt illnesses аre universаl whаtever we cаll them in different lаnguаges, the symptoms аre the sаme аnd it is eаsily detectаble whаt is the term to trаnslаte.

Sometimes when in trаnslаtion words mаy seem different in аppeаrаnce аnd thus one could stаte thаt the technique of lexicаl trаnsformаtion wаs used in the process of trаnslаtion. In fаct there аre words which stem from the sаme lаnguаge аs Lаtin, Greek or French in the source lаnguаge аnd in the tаrget lаnguаge. The problem is thаt certаin words might hаve undergone trаnsformаtions throughout its usаge in thаt lаnguаge. There аre different vаriаnts, аs in one lаnguаge the word might not hаve chаnged too much from the common root, while in аnother it might, or there mаy be cаses when such words hаve undergone chаnges in both, source аnd tаrget lаnguаges. Consider the exаmple of noxious in English which is nociv in Romаniаn. The English word stem from the noun noxа in Lаtin hаving the meаning injury, hurt, while in Romаniаn it stems from the Lаtin verb nocere which meаns to hurt. Some other аpproximаte exаmples with common roots include potion аnd potаbil, vision аnd vedere, etc.

Talking about grammatical difficulties of the texts we had to translate and the grammatical categories of the specialized pharmaceutical terminology, we have to note that during the process of translating such texts, we have encountered rather simple forms concerning grammatical tenses, thus, Present Simple Tense, Present Perfect Tense, Past Simple Tense and Future Simple Tense were the tenses used the most in terminological texts. While most of the specialized terminological units were nouns. This is due to the fact that terminological and scientific texts are more prone to use a simpler language without complex formulations; this simplicity has the aim of being universally understood by researchers and practitioners in different countries in order to fight different diseases.

The pharmacology is an ever developing science. Everyday new substances, lotions and drugs emerge, there should exist a name for every one of them. There exist many techniques of coining new words one of them is combination, that is, previously existing words of different origins and even different grammatical categories are combined together in order to form new words consider the following examples: Pharmacoeconomics, Carcinogenic, Endotoxin.

Among those compound words a standalone place is taken by compound words made up of the suffix bio and other grammatical categories. Such words are very common in the field of pharmaceutical-medical terminology. Words themselves can be nouns, adjectives or verbs: Biocide, biogeneric, antibiotic, bioactivity, biosynthesis, etc.

When looking up in etymological dictionaries, we have found out that certain compound words etymologically refer to two languages Latin and English Greek and English, consider the following examples: Antibody (Latin+English), Xenobiotic (Greek+Latin).

Speaking about the Korean language, it is to mention that it represent a case a part thus, any internationalized words which use the suffix anti, are pronounced the same regardless of the writing, the same goes with Korean, but in the case of the term antibody, pronunciation is different. And this fact leads us to the idea that the Korean equivalent of the term has been nationalized and international words or suffixes have been removed. Instead it uses체standing for term, body, and항standing for screen, protecting.

The direct translation into Korean of international words, which sound the same in the Korean language is always the process of transcription after looking into the specialized literature. Consider the case of the term antibiotic, it features four syllables in Korean: 항생 sounds like anti and 물질 sounding mulchil and having the meaning of substance.

Korean in not part of the Indo-European family of languages and in this way different cases can occur, thus many suffixes which are present in English, French, Romanian, Spanish, etc. We can bring the example of the adjective dermal, which approximately has the same stems in Indo-European languages, but as for the Korean, the Greek equivalent for the adjective dermal misses, so the Korean uses the variant of the noun which means skin or leather.

Besides the etymological doublets, the term Drug which can have another meaning as narcotic or medicine. Another impediment is of sematic origin it refers to the fact that the term drug has a double meaning but having a common definition of a substance that modifies certain functions of the living organism. So one meaning refers to medicines another to narcotics that is why the translator should be very careful to the context when performing the translation. This is one of rare cases of the occurrence of synonymy in scientific specialized terminology.

I wish to also bring my sincere thanks to the teaching staff of the Faculty of Letters. Due to my teachers I have grown like a real specialist in the field of translations and foreign languages, I also thank them for making me love and appreciate this interesting and responsible work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, I.V. The Lexicology of the Modern English. Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola, 2000. 295 p.

Atkins, B. T., Kegl, J. Explicit and implicit information in dictionaries. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 122 p.

Prоshinа, Zоyа. Theоry оf Trаnslаtiоn. Vlаdivоstоk: Fаr Eаstern University Press, 2008. 276 p.

Shibatani, M., Thompson S. Essays in semantics and pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009. 188 p.

Dictiоnаries

Levitchi, Leon. Dictionar englez-roman. București: Gramar, 2005. 1080p.

Lewis, Norman. The New Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form. London: Berkley Publishing Group, 1986. 496 p.

Shapiro N. English – Korean Dictionary. Oxford: OUP, 2008. 453 p.

Simpson, John. The Oxford English Dictionary: 20 Volume Set. Oxford: OUP, 2002. 2209 p.

Internet sоurces

Оnline English-Rоmаniаn dictiоnаry аvаilаble аt http://www.dictiо.rо/ dictiоnаr-englez-rоmаn (visited, 17.04.15)

Оnline etymоlоgicаl dictiоnаry аvаilаble аt http://www.etymоnline.cоm/ index. php (visited, 04.04.15)

Оnline Glоssаry оf Pharmaceutical and Medical Terms аvаilаble аt http://www.contractpharma.com/glossary (visited, 20.04.15)

Web-based dictionary of Korean and English languages available at http://translation.babylon.com/english/to-korean/ (visited, 17.04.2015)

ANNEX

Annex 1

STATEMENT*

regarding the originality of the contents of the License / Master’s Thesis

I, the undersigned ……………………….………………………in my capacity of graduate of Free International University of Moldova, Faculty of……………….…………., specialty……………………………, year of graduation…………………………, declare on my own responsibility that the License / Master’s Thesis entitled……………………………………………………..………………………………………………….which has been elaborated under the supervision of Mr. / Mrs. ….……………………..………… and is to be presented to a committee, is original and I am the sole author.

I hereby declare that I have not plagiarized any License / Master’s Theses, monographs, specialized works, articles, etc.; published or posted on Internet, as well as other biographical sources consulted in the process of the thesis elaboration for awarding License / Master title.

I declare that I agree to my License / Master’s Thesis being checked in any legal ways in order to assess its originality, thereof its content being introduced in a database for such purpose.

Date………………………………. Student’s signature…………………….……………

Annex 2

Annex 3

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, I.V. The Lexicology of the Modern English. Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola, 2000. 295 p.

Atkins, B. T., Kegl, J. Explicit and implicit information in dictionaries. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 122 p.

Prоshinа, Zоyа. Theоry оf Trаnslаtiоn. Vlаdivоstоk: Fаr Eаstern University Press, 2008. 276 p.

Shibatani, M., Thompson S. Essays in semantics and pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009. 188 p.

Dictiоnаries

Levitchi, Leon. Dictionar englez-roman. București: Gramar, 2005. 1080p.

Lewis, Norman. The New Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form. London: Berkley Publishing Group, 1986. 496 p.

Shapiro N. English – Korean Dictionary. Oxford: OUP, 2008. 453 p.

Simpson, John. The Oxford English Dictionary: 20 Volume Set. Oxford: OUP, 2002. 2209 p.

Internet sоurces

Оnline English-Rоmаniаn dictiоnаry аvаilаble аt http://www.dictiо.rо/ dictiоnаr-englez-rоmаn (visited, 17.04.15)

Оnline etymоlоgicаl dictiоnаry аvаilаble аt http://www.etymоnline.cоm/ index. php (visited, 04.04.15)

Оnline Glоssаry оf Pharmaceutical and Medical Terms аvаilаble аt http://www.contractpharma.com/glossary (visited, 20.04.15)

Web-based dictionary of Korean and English languages available at http://translation.babylon.com/english/to-korean/ (visited, 17.04.2015)

ANNEX

Annex 1

STATEMENT*

regarding the originality of the contents of the License / Master’s Thesis

I, the undersigned ……………………….………………………in my capacity of graduate of Free International University of Moldova, Faculty of……………….…………., specialty……………………………, year of graduation…………………………, declare on my own responsibility that the License / Master’s Thesis entitled……………………………………………………..………………………………………………….which has been elaborated under the supervision of Mr. / Mrs. ….……………………..………… and is to be presented to a committee, is original and I am the sole author.

I hereby declare that I have not plagiarized any License / Master’s Theses, monographs, specialized works, articles, etc.; published or posted on Internet, as well as other biographical sources consulted in the process of the thesis elaboration for awarding License / Master title.

I declare that I agree to my License / Master’s Thesis being checked in any legal ways in order to assess its originality, thereof its content being introduced in a database for such purpose.

Date………………………………. Student’s signature…………………….……………

Annex 2

Annex 3