Utilizarea Sinonimelor In Textele Juridice Si Traducerea Lor

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utilizarea sinonimelor în textele juridice și traducerea lor

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. VAROIUOS AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF SYNONYMS

I.1.Notion of Synonym

I.2.Classification of Synonyms

I.3.Building the Lexical Knowledge-Base of Synonym Differences

CHAPTER II. USING THE LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE-BASE OF

SYNONYMS IN LEGAL TEXT

II.1.The Notion of Legal Text

II.2.The Specific of the Language of Law

CHAPTER III. SYNONYMS IN THE LANGUAGE OF LAW

III.1.Meanings of the Synonyms Based on Legal Texts and Their Translation

III.2. Definition, Meaning and Use of the Word RIGHT

III.3.Translation of the Legal Texts

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

This work presents the attempt to the most used terms in the language of law and especially the word ‘legalese’. It is dedicated to the use of synonyms in the domain of law. The meaning of the word synonym is taken from Ancient Greek, the first part of it syn means with and the second one onoma means name. The definition of the word synonymy can be defined as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotative meanings, but different in morphemic composition. As synonyms we can take any part of speech e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions, as long they have the same meaning same : noun "child" and "kid", verb "to go" and "to walk away", adjective "nice" and "awesome", adverb "quickly" and "speedily". And we can understand if two words have the same meaning then they are referring to the same contexts. Believable is that in some sentences one word can be replaced without changing it’s meaning, for example: this is a magnificent/wonderful place. But in many cases even if two words are synonyms, they cannot replace each other, because they will change the meaning of the sentence, that’s why there is always a difference between words.

So, language of law seems to be a very attractive phenomenon and it is believed to be one of the refined legal systems. Our priority was to make a research in this field of the English language and to created a base of English legal texts. Many people like other non-native speakers of English, many times they don’t know which legal terminology could be used interchangeably and what are the rules that reduce special use of these terms in legal texts. My thesis provides an elaboration of particular synonyms in legal texts and tries to discover and to describe rules of how we can use synonyms in particular contexts. In the complexity of meanings, an individual searching for another word must be completely sure that the synonym chosen doesn’t change the meaning of the phrase. In this sense, a synonym is a word with an identical meaning or very analogous to that of another word. There is said that we cannot find an absolute synonym for any word. This made us believe that the only synonyms are terms that have the same denotation, connotation, and range of applicability. There are such terms as true synonyms that are frequently technical terms and they seem to be always concrete words taken from linguistically disparate sources. Some examples of them are celiac (from Greek), abdominal (from Latin); car (from Latin) and automobile (from French). Here the synonymy meets the criteria where they have exactly the same denotations, range of applicability and connotations, and could be used in identical sentences.

The objectives of the research are the following:

Notion of synonyms

Classification of Synonyms

Origin of Synonyms

Building the Lexical Knowledge-Base of Synonym Differences

The notion of legal text

The specific of language of law

Features of language of law

The translation of the same juridical terms

Structure of the Study: Introduction containing the objectives of the thesis, methods of investigation and the application of it; three chapters, conclusion and bibliography. The first chapter introduces the topic of the notion of synonyms, their classification and stylistic characteristics of legal synonyms in the Romanian and English language. The second chapter includes theoretical investigation on the lexical base of synonyms in language of law. It contains the notion of legal text and also the specific of it. The third chapter is based on an analysis of the most used juridical terms their definition and their translation.

We used the following methods of investigation: the analytical, the descriptive and the transformational ones. In conclusion we give the results of the work. Bibliography contains 61 references: books, journals, dictionaries and articles.

CHAPTER I. VARIOUS AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF SYNONYMS

I.1. Notion of Synonym

The existence of synonyms is the most important feature of a vocabulary of any language. This is connected with the meaning of words.

The problem is mostly the definition of “synonym”, which number a lot of them and no one is worldwide accepted. As mentioned bellow the word synonym can be defined as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotative meanings, but different in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, style and idiomatic use [29, p.63].

This problem of synonymy is treated in various modes by Russian and foreign scientists. There are a lot of definitions in our linguistics but the most understandable and full is said by I.V. Arnold: "Synonyms – are two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical meaning, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valence peculiar to one of the elements in a synonymic group."

The notion of synonymy describes the definition and gives some criteria of synonymy (identity of meaning, interchangeability), it show to us some variety in connotation, emotive coloring, style and so on. This descriptive meaning as many others has the main drawbacks – there are no objective criteria of "identity" or "similarity" or sameness of meaning. They all are based on the linguistic intuitions of the scholars [1, p.42].

The definition shows that the members of the synonymic group in a dictionary should have their common meaning and as well as it should be described with the same words; they should be different in implication connotation, shades of meaning, idiomatic usage, etc.

The following synonyms as Hope, anticipation, expectation are used to be synonymous because they all cover the meaning of "having something in mind which is above to take place…" The word expectation may contain either of good intentions or of evil one. The second word anticipation is as a rule a good expectation of something. The third one hope is being not a belief mostly but a desire that something or some event or incident would happen. There is also a stylistic difference. The words anticipation and expectation, being Roman, are formal words which are used only by skilled speakers, meanwhile the native monosyllabic hope happen to be stylistically neutral. Moreover their idiomatic usage differ. Only the word hope is accepted in such structure expressions as to hope against hope, to lose hope, to pin one' shopes on something. Neither the word expectation nor anticipation can be substituted into this quotation by T.Eliot: "You don't know what hope is until you have lost it"[6, p.412].

A lot of pupils consider that the word synonym shows the same notion but differ in shades of meaning. Trying to find it in the “ Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms” we see that author showed the semantic criterion near the criterion of compatibility. The ideas showed in the term of meaning must reveal the part of speech. Usually synonyms can be represented fully or mostly fully in the same terminology. There are absolute synonyms and we call them like that because when replacing them in sentences, in contexts they don’t change the meaning. But as a rule we cannot find the absolute synonyms which can be applied in all examples and also have the same semantic features. That’s why it becomes one of the greatest problem in modern linguistics.

The most confusing feature of synonyms is its duality. Almost they are the same but meanwhile different, even synonyms are made to have some similarity between them, they create problems in using [31, p.201].

Lyons said that : “…lexemes can be said to be completely synonymous (in a certain range of contexts) if and only if they have the same descriptive, expressive and social meaning (in the range of contexts in questions). They may be described as absolutely synonymous if and only if they have the same distribution and are completely synonymous in all their meanings and in all their contexts of occurrence.”

He means that the process of finding complete synonymy is rare and also absolute synonymy hardly exists. Similarity made them to share characteristics that are common like register, denotation, connotation or they have to be similar because they meet the same features [9, p.412].

Synonyms are not fully intersubstitutable, but rather vary in their shades of denotation or connotation, or in the components of meaning they emphasize; they may also vary in grammatical or collocational constraints. There are very few absolute synonyms, if they exist at all. The so-called “dictionaries of synonyms” actually contain near-synonyms. This is made clear by dictionaries such as Webster’ s New Dictionary of Synonyms and Choose the Right Word, which list clusters of similar words and explicate the differences between the words in each cluster.

These dictionaries are in effect dictionaries of near-synonym discrimination. Writers often turn to such resources when confronted with a choice between near-synonyms, because choosing the wrong word can be imprecise or awkward, or convey unwanted implications. These dictionaries are made for human consumption and they are available only on paper, not in electronic format.

Understanding the differences between near-synonyms is important for fine-grained distinctions in machine translation. For example, when translating the French word erreur to English, one of the near-synonyms mistake, blooper , blunder , boner , contretemps, error , faux pas, goof, slip, solecism could be chosen, depending on the context and on the nuances that need to be conveyed. Another application where knowledge of near-synonyms is vital is lexical choice in natural language generation systems. Such a system takes a non-linguistic input (semantic representation) and generates text. When more than one word can be used, the choice should be based on some explicit preferences. A third application is an intelligent thesaurus, which assists writers not only with lists of possible synonyms, but also with the nuances they carry [18, p.93].

For example exist near-synonyms can vary in many ways. DiMarco et al. analyzed the type of differences adduced in dictionaries of near-synonym discrimination. They found that a limited number of types occurred frequently , but an unlimited number were used. A detailed analysis of the types of variation is given by Edmonds.

Synonyms can differ in the frequency with which they express a component of their meaning (e.g., Occasionally, invasion suggests a large-scale but unplanned incursion), in the latency (or indirectness) of the expression of the component (e.g., Test strongly implies an actual application of these means), and in fine-grained variations of the idea itself (e.g., Paternalistic may suggest either benevolent rule or a style of government determined to keep the governed helpless and dependent). The frequere used. A detailed analysis of the types of variation is given by Edmonds.

Synonyms can differ in the frequency with which they express a component of their meaning (e.g., Occasionally, invasion suggests a large-scale but unplanned incursion), in the latency (or indirectness) of the expression of the component (e.g., Test strongly implies an actual application of these means), and in fine-grained variations of the idea itself (e.g., Paternalistic may suggest either benevolent rule or a style of government determined to keep the governed helpless and dependent). The frequency is signaled by words such as always, usually, sometimes, seldom, never. The latency is signaled by many words in CTRW, including the obvious words suggests, denotes, implies, and connotes. The strength of a distinction is signaled by words such as strongly and weakly [3, p.215].

Figure 1.1: The class hierarchy of distinctions; rectangles represent classes, ovals represent attributes that a class and its descendants have.

The conventional view is that the denotation of a lexical item is represented as a concept or a structure of concepts (i.e., a word sense is linked to the concept it lexicalizes), which are themselves organized into an ontology . The ontology is often language-independent, or at least language-neutral, so that it can be used in multilingual applications. Words that are nearly synonymous have to be linked to their own slightly different concepts. For example, the fragment of a hierarchical model shown in Figure 1.2 needs to make many fine-grained distinctions to accommodate the near-synonyms of the word error. It needs to branch according to multiple criteria, such as blameworthiness, significance, stupidity, etc. Hirst showed that such a model entails an awkward taxonomic proliferation of language-specific concepts at the fringes, thereby defeating the purpose of a language-independent ontology [8, p.187].

French synonyms need to be added into the model, the word erreur can be easily attached, but the word bavure (which means an unfortunate error made by the police) cannot be added without additional branching.

Moreover, some words need to cut across the hierarchy , for example if a word denotes both a social error and a funny error . The hierarchical model defines words in terms of necessary and sufficient truth-conditions; therefore it cannot account for indirect expressions of meaning or for fuzzy differences between near-synonyms [19, p.74].

Edmonds modified this model to account for near-synonymy . The meaning of each word arises out of a context-dependent combination of a context-independent denotation and a set of explicit differences from its near-synonyms. Thus the meaning of a word consists of both necessary and sufficient conditions that allow the word to be selected by a lexical choice process and a set of nuances of indirect meaning that may be conveyed with different strengths.

In this model, a conventional ontology is cut off at a coarse grain and the near-synonyms are clustered under a shared concept, rather than linking each word to a separate concept. The result is a clustered model of lexical knowledge.

Figure 1.2: The hierarchical model of lexical knowledge

Each cluster has a core denotation that represents the essential shared denotational meaning of its synonyms. The internal structure of each cluster is complex, representing semantic (or denotational), stylistic, and expressive (or attitudinal) differences between near-synonyms. The differences or lexical nuances are expressed by means of peripheral concepts (for denotational nuances) or attributes (for nuances of style and attitude). A clustered model has the advantage that it keeps the ontology language-neutral by representing language-specific distinctions inside the cluster of near-synonyms. Fine-grained distinctions can be easily added to each cluster .The clusters of near-synonyms for each language do not need to be separate clusters. They can be part of one bigger cluster, but the separation is good for modularity. Inside each cluster of near-synonyms, denotational distinctions are captured by using peripheral concepts. For example, the structure for the near-synonyms of the word error, built by hand by Edmonds.

This work is based on representing the meaning of the synonyms. Other related research involving differences between near-synonyms has a linguistic or lexicographic flavour, rather than computational. Apresjan built a bilingual dictionary of synonyms, more specifically a dictionary of English synonyms explained in Romanian. It contains 400 entries selected from the approximately 2500 entries from Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms, but reorganized by splitting or merging clusters of synonyms, guided by lexicographic principles described by Apresjan. An entry consists of: headwords, explication (equivalent to the core meaning in my work), translation, meaning (semantic similarities and differences), notes, syntax, co-occurrence constraints, and illustrations. From these, the part called meaning includes the following types of differences: semantic, evaluative, associative and connotational, and differences in emphasis or logical stress. These differences are similar to the ones used in my work. The semantic differences refer to: the subject of the action, property , or state; the object or content; the addressee; the instrument or operative part; the cause and effect; the purpose; the motivation; time; manner, nature; degree; properties (states) or their external manifestations; permanent or temporary state; active or passive mode; static or dynamic mode; mind or emotion; physical or spiritual aspects; intentional or unintentional action. This list is opened; therefore we could include the elements of this list in a computational representation of synonym differences, but we still need to allow for additional types of differences. Gao studied the distinctions between near-synonym verbs, more specifically Chinese physical action verbs such as verbs of: cutting, putting, throwing, touching, and lying. Arppe studied the relation between Finnish morphology and synonymy. He showed that synonymous words can have different behavior, depending on their inflectional form, in a language with a very rich morphology. There is related work on representing the distinctions between near-synonyms, concerned not with a general model, but rather with the linguistic analysis of particular words, in more than one language. Wierzbicka presents a detailed analysis of the words freedom and homeland in a couple of languages, with emphasis on differences that reflect cultural differences.

I.2.Classification of Synonyms

The Russian philologist A.I. Smirnitsky created the classification of synonyms into 3 types [6, p.145]:

Ideographic synonyms – words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning:

to understand – to realize

to expect – to anticipate

to look – glance – stare – peep – gaze healthy – wholesome – sound – sane

Stylistic – words differing only in stylistic characteristics:

to begin – to commence – to high

to think – to deem

enemy – opponent – foe – adversary

to help – to aid – to assist

courage – valour – dauntlessness – grit – guts

Absolute (perfect, complete) – words coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are rare in a language. In Romanian, f.e.: aviator – pilot – zburator;

In English: pilot – airman — flyer – flyingman; screenwriter – scriptwriter – scripter – specialis semasiology – semantics.

Typology of synonyms:

– cognitive synonyms – s. which differ in respect of the varieties of discourse in which they appear; the distinction between such items lies not so much in their inner lexical meaning, but in the sphere of their actual application or usage, as besides the referential basis (referential meaning – q.v.) the actual meanings of the words as found in utterances reflect relations which hold between lexical items within the communicative space, i.e. the functional differentiation of discourse.

– contextual/context-dependent synonyms – similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions, when the difference between the meanings of two words is contextually neutralized: e.g. buy and get [16, p.536];

– dialectal synonyms – pertaining to different variant of language from dialectal stratification point of view;

– functional synonyms – the term is not lexicological proper as it refers to different syntactic units capable of performing one and the same syntactic function (e.g. Subordinate Object Clause and Complex Object constructions are functional synonyms;

– ideographic synonyms – differ in shades of meaning, i.e. between which a semantic different is statable;

– stylistic synonyms– are distinguished stylistically, i.e. in all kinds of emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones without explicitly displaying semantic difference;

– referential synonyms – a vague term, concerns coreferential expressions, when one denotatum can be defined differently from different points of view and in different aspects: e.g. names Walter Scott and the author of 'Ivanhoe' are coreferential because they refer to one and the same denotatum – Sir Walter Scott;

– terminological synonyms – two existing terms for one denotatum: e.g. borrowing and loan-word; concept and notion (the difference between them is not discriminated by some linguists) [9, p.74];

– total synonyms – can replace each other in any given context, without the slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations (e.g. noun and substantive, functional affix, flection and inflection); is a rare occasion [3, p.196].

Verbs: answer – reply, read – peruse, buy – purchase.

The infiltration of British English by Americanisms also results in the formation of synonyms pairs, one being a traditional Briticism and the other – a new American loan: Leader – editorial; autumn – fall; government – administration; luggage – baggage; wireless -radio; lorry – truck; tin – can; long distance (telephone) call – trunk call; stone – rock; team -squad.

Synonymy is a lexical relation that means sameness of meaning. Synonyms are similar, but not identical. Examples of some English synonyms are:

car and automobile smart and intelligent
baby and infant student and pupil
pretty and attractive sick and ill
funny and humorous died and expired

Synonyms can be nouns, adverbs or adjectives, as long as both members of the pair are of the same part of speech. Traditionally, synonymy can only hold between words, and, more precisely, between words belonging to the same part of speech; for example: ‘enormous’ = ‘huge’; ‘gaze’ = ‘stare’. This is the classic form of synonymy, covered by, for instance, synonym dictionaries [25, p.63].

As a rule the Americanisms have a lower frequency index than the British counterparts. Thus, tin is more common than can, team – than squad. But luggage – baggage, lorry – truck, leader -editorial are used sometimes interchangeably.

In a few cases the American synonym has a higher frequency than its British counterpart as in the pair: commuter – a season ticket holder (Br.). Very often 2 synonyms differ stylistically. Br. Synonym is stylistically neutral while the Americanism is stylistically marked (usually as colloquial or slang): intellectual – egghead excuse – alibi angry – mad averse – allergic.

English also used many pairs of synonymous derivatives, the one Hellenic and the other Romance: hypotheses – supposition periphery – circumference sympathy – compassion synthesis – composition [6, p.55].

Another source of synonymy is the so-called euphemism, when a harsh word indelicate or unpleasant or least inoffensive connotation. Thus the denotational meaning of drunk and merry may be the same. The euphemistic expression merry coincides in denotation with the word it substituted but the connotation of the latter faded out and so the utterance on the whole is milder and less offensive.

Very often a learned word which sounds less familiar and less offensive or derogative: for example “drunkenness” – “intoxication”, “sweat” – “perspiration” (cf. Russian terms “экcпpoпpиация”, “pаcкyлачиваниe”). The effect is achieved because the periphrastic expression is not so harsh, sometimes jocular: poor – underprivileged; pregnant – in the family way; lodger – paying guest.

Set expressions consisting of a verb with a postpositive are widely used in present day English: to choose – pick out, abandon – give up, postpone – put off, return – come back, quarrel – fall out.

Even more frequent are, for instance, such set expressions which differ from simple verbs in aspect or emphasis: to laugh – to give a laugh, to sign – to give a sign, to smoke – to have a smoke, to love – to fall in love [9, p.412].

Smell, scent, odor, aroma all denote a property of a thing that makes it perceptible to the olfactory sense. Smell not only is the most general of these terms but tends to be the most colorless. It is the appropriate word when merely a sensation is indicated and no hint or its source, quality or character is necessary.

Scent tends to call attention to the physical basis of the sense of smell and is particularly appropriate when the emphasis is on emanations or explanations from an external object which reach the olfactory receptors rather than impression produced in the olfactory center of the brain. Odor is oftentimes indistinguishable from scent for it too can be thought of as smth. diffused and as smth. by means of which external objects are identified by the sense of smell. But the words are not always interchangeable, for odor usually implies abundance of effluvia and therefore does not suggest, as scent often does, the need of a delicate or highly sensitive sense of smell [6, p.55].

Palmer (1981) distinguishes between synonyms in five ways. First, some synonyms belong to different dialects of the language. For example, loss word is used in the United States and is used in the UK fall. Secondly, some synonyms are used in various styles depending on the level of formality; colloquial, formal. For example, Sir (formal) human head. Third, some words differ only in their values or emotional evaluation, but their cognitive meaning is the same. For example, hide, hide. Fourth, some of the words are subject to restrictions collocation, for example, they appear only with the specific word. For example, there rancid butter, addled eggs. Fifth, the meanings of words overlap. For example, mature, adult, ripe. If we take each of these words, we have a larger set of synonyms. Palmer suggests a synonymy test by substituting one word for another. For absolute synonyms are mutually interchangeable in all contexts, so absolute synonyms are very rare in the language. Another way to test is using synonyms antonyms. For example, the surface is the opposite of deep, while the opposite surface deep only [6, p.145].

What about absolute synonymy, which is, according to Cruse where all the contextual relationships between the two terms are identical. Roughly speaking, this means that all language contexts, the two terms are interchangeable, with no difference in meaning. Given the difficulty of the behavior of candidates that two absolute synonyms in all contexts, Cruse (ibid.) suggests normality test as a way to determine the lack of absolute synonymy. This test shows that one of the two terms is normal in a given context, and the other less normal.

(1) He said the match starts at 8.00 (normal +)

(2) He told me the match starts at 8.00 (- normal)

Adding (3), however, and compare it with (1), it is difficult to attribute greater normality in one or the other:

(3) He said the match starts at 8:00

Cruse (ibid.) excludes the use of contexts in which a term is odd syntactically, suggesting context should provide a level playing field in order to determine normality. If so, should go a long way to find two contexts beginning and start could be seen as non-absolute synonyms. Moreover Cruse also excludes the use of "irrelevant senses" of a word form.

(4) The latest car is an old Arthur (+)

(5) The latest car Arthur is a former one (-)

(6) had a greater responsibility in his old job

(7) had a greater responsibility in his former job.

(Ibid.) Cruse's normality test works well if we want to show the least amount of contextual inquiry that two words are not synonymous absolute. It is more difficult to show that the two words are actually synonyms absolute [6, p.541].

(1) He said the match starts at 8.00 (normal +)

(2) He told me the match starts at 8.00 (- normal)

Adding (3), however, and compare it with (1), it is difficult to attribute greater normality in one or the other:

(3) He said the match starts at 8:00

(4) The latest car is an old Arthur (+)

(5) The latest car Arthur is a former one (-)

(6) had a greater responsibility in his old job

(7) had a greater responsibility in his former job.

When we use language for communication purposes, we come to perceive any expression as a tool more or less suitable for our purposes, I came to see it as having some value. (The task of expression can, in one particular case, be regarded as an object as a name, in this case, its value can possibly be identified with the object. But it would be quite a special case.) expressions that can be used in the same sense have equal values, they are equivalent, and synonymy is primarily just this kind of equivalence. Understand, comprehend, appreciate are synonyms when they mean to have a clear and true idea or conception, or full and exact knowledge, of something [40,p.58]. They (especially the first two) are often used interchangeably and seemingly without loss; nevertheless, they are distinguishable by fine sharp differences in meaning in precise use. In general, it may be said that understand refers to the result of a mental process, comprehend to the mental process of arriving at such a result; thus , one may come to understand a person although one has had difficulty in comprehending his motives and his peculiarities; one may be unable to comprehend a poem, no matter how clearly one understands every sentence in it. "You begin to comprehend me, do you" cried he, turning towards her. "Oh! Yes – I understand you perfectly." Sometimes the difference is more subtle; comprehend implies the mental act of grasping or seizing clearly and fully; understand, the power to receive and register a clear and true impression. "That ye, being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to comprehend with all saints what is the breadth, length, depth, height; and to know the love of Christ, which passéth knowledge". "Some men can think of thousands of dollars, others have to think of hundreds. It's all their minds are big enough to comprehend." "And the piece of God, which passéth all understanding, shall keep your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus". "Charters is so crowded that one must be content to fell what one can, and let the rest go. Understand, we cannot." Appreciate, as here considered, implies a just judgment or the estimation of a thing's true or exact value; therefore, the word is used in reference to persons or things which may be undervaluing or overvaluing. "You are of an age now to appreciate his character." "We do not reproach him for preferring, apparently, Euripides to Aeschylus. But he should at least appreciate Euripides". "The public opinion which thus magnifies patriotism into a religion is a force of which it is difficult to appreciate the strength." "To appreciate the gulf between the ideal and the fact, we have only to contrast such a scheme as that set forth in the "Republic" of Plato with the following description of the state of Greece during the Peloponnesian War" [25, p.125].

Many times the words are completely synonymous, in the sense of being interchangeable in any content, without the slightest change in the objective sense, the feeling-tone or evocative sense. But most of them could have some distinctive features, which are listed below [32,p.112].

(1) He said the match starts at 8.00 (normal +)

(2) He told me the match starts at 8.00 (- normal)

Adding (3), however, and compare it with (1), it is difficult to attribute greater normality in one or the other:

(3) He said the match starts at 8:00

(4) The latest car is an old Arthur (+)

(5) The latest car Arthur is a former one (-)

(6) had a greater responsibility in his old job

(7) had a greater responsibility in his former job.

As natural languages are subject to constant evolution, new lexical patterns may appear or existing ones may undergo modification. Synonymy, although of a universal character, may vary from language to language in terms of its synonymic patterns. For instance, although English and Albanian are both equipped with numerous synonymic sets, different factors may have brought about the establishment of synonymic relations. Although we use different synonyms in our speech or writing, we are not always aware of their origin or the socio-political event that caused the creation of a particular synonymic set [21, p.63].

It is obvious that if we want to prove the existence of synonyms in any language we must accept a postulate that there are words in a language that differ from each other in form but not in meaning. Palmer offers a fairly simple definition of synonyms to describe the phenomenon as "identity of sense." He also points out that policy makers often use expressions synonyms dictionary in order to explain the words in dictionaries. Dictionary makers provide us with several sets of words that have the same or at least very similar meaning. Saeed also uses this definition to refer to synonyms when he says, "phonological Synonyms are different words that have the same or very similar meanings." This definition is not complex at all and clearly explains what the term means synonymous, but this definition is certainly simplified. It may be helpful to lay people who are trying to find a simple definition of the linguistic phenomenon, but does not explain enough synonyms for the sake of research I conducted and present its results in the thesis. Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen state and Spencer, "synonyms or identity of meaning is a semantic relationship that most readers will be familiar. Nevertheless, it is doubtful whether there lexemes in a language that can be considered as completely identical in meaning. " If we deal with synonymy must take into account the fact that the term "identity of sense" is too simplified. We need to get this phenomenon more deeply defined, therefore, we must look more closely to find synonyms and definitions sophisticated explain the relationship to a deeper semantic [10, p.205].

However, what makes knowledge of this “synonymous etymology” important is the fact that differences of this kind are usually accompanied by differences between the members of the synonymic set. Moreover, recognition of these differences can be used in the learning process as an effective tool of better learning and memorizing new words [9, p.78].

First of all, it is important to distinguish between what most scholars call absolute synonymy and relative synonymy. As regards the former, the majority of those who have studied synonymy agree that synonyms which would be identical in meaning and that could replace each other in every context without the slightest difference would be either rare according to the optimistic authors, or they would not exist at all according to the skeptics, whereas Cruse states that “language abhors absolute synonyms just as nature abhors the vacuum”. Based on the argument that absolute synonyms would be unnecessary for language and would overload it, and working against the principle of language economy, the differences that could be identified in the synonymy relation are several. The concept of relative synonymy has been treated by Edmonds who defines relative synonyms as “words similar in essential meaning but potentially different in peripheral traits”[48,p.125].

I.3.Building the Lexical Knowledge-Base of Synonym Differences

The goal of this chapter is to automatically acquire a lexical knowledge-base of synonyms from a dictionary of near-synonym discrimination. Each entry in the dictionary enumerates a set of near-synonyms and describes the differences among them. I use the term cluster in a broad sense to denote both the near-synonyms from an entry and their differences. My goal is not only to automatically extract knowledge from one dictionary of synonym discrimination, but also to discover a general method which can be applied to any such dictionary with minimal adaptation. The task can be divided into two phases, treated by two consecutive modules. The first module, called the extraction module, is described in this chapter . The generic clusters produced by this module contain the concepts that near-synonyms may involve (the peripheral concepts) as simple strings. This generic LKB of NS can be adapted for use in any NLP application. The second module customizes the LKB of NS, so that it satisfies the requirements of the particular system that employs it. This customization module deals with the core denotations and the peripheral concepts. It transforms the strings from the generic clusters into concepts in the particular ontology . An example of a customization module is [12, p.30]:

Figure 1.3: The two modules of the task

In order to automatically derive a lexical knowledge-base of synonyms from a dictionary of near-synonym discrimination, I rely on the hypothesis that the language of the entries contains enough regularities to allow automatic extraction of knowledge from them. CTRW contains 909 clusters, with a total of 14,138 sentences (excluding examples of usage), from which I derive the lexical knowledge-base. An example of results of this phase, corresponding to the second, third, and fourth sentence for the absorb cluster in Figure 1.1 (repeated here without the examples of usage: “Absorb is slightly more informal than the others and has, perhaps, the widest range of uses. In its most restricted sense it suggests the taking in or soaking up specifically of liquids. In more general uses absorb may imply the thoroughness of the action, is presented in Figure 1.2. The next sections describe the extraction module, whose architecture is presented in Figure 1.3. It has two main parts. First, it learns extraction patterns; then it applies the patterns to extract differences between synonyms [1, p.302].

The extraction program considers what synonyms each sentence fragment is about (most often expressed as the subject of the sentence), what the expressed distinction is, and with what frequency and relative strength. If it is a denotational distinction, then the peripheral concept involved has to also be extracted (from the object position in the sentence). Therefore, my program extracts the subject of the sentence (the first noun phrase before the main verb) and the object of the sentence (the first noun phrase after the main verb). This heuristic extracts information works for sentences that present one piece of it. But there are many sentences that present two ore more pieces of information. In such cases, my program splits a sentence into coordinated clauses (or coordinated verb phrases), by using a parser to distinguish when a coordinating conjunction (and, but, whereas) is conjoining two main clauses or two parts of a complex VP.

Sometimes the subject of a sentence refers to a group of synonyms. For example, if the subject is the remaining words, my program needs to assert information about the near-synonyms from the same cluster not mentioned yet in the text. In order to implement reference resolution, I applied the same DL algorithm to retrieve expressions used to refer to near-synonyms or groups of near-synonyms. We run the algorithm with the seeds noun, word, term, verb, adverb, adjective [24, p.321].

The auxiliary words include: the, three, both, preceding, previous, remaining, other. Using these auxiliary words, more references are resolved. Any time the subject is one of the main words (noun, word, term, verb, adverb, adjective, preposition, nouns, words, terms, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, pair), if there is an auxiliary word, the meaning is modified accordingly . This is done by manually encoding it into the program. For example, the expression the r emaining verbs will cause the program to compute the set of near-synonyms of that entry not processed yet to that point. Another case my extraction program needs to deal with is when stylistic or attitudinal distinctions are expressed relative to other near-synonyms in the cluster [30, p.54].

In this chapter, the lexical knowledge-base of near-synonym differences is extended with information about which senses of the near-synonyms are relevant for each cluster. But some of the synonyms are ambiguous words; therefore some particular senses of a synonym are distinguished from some senses of the other near-synonyms. For example, if the words bank and trust are in a cluster of near-synonyms, the financial sense of bank (and not the river-bank sense) is distinguished from the financial sense of trust (and not the sense denoting confidence). The problem of ambiguity is further complicated by polysemy (related senses grouped together).

This chapter presented a general method for extracting knowledge from a dictionary of synonym differences. The main idea was to learn words and patterns for the classes of interest (in this case denotational distinctions and attitude-style distinctions) by using an unsupervised decision-list algorithm. Then the words and patterns were used for extracting information from the sentences of the dictionary . The extracted information is: what near-synonym(s) the part of the sentence is talking about, what class of distinction is expressed, with what frequency and strength. In the case of denotational distinctions, a peripheral string that shows what is implied, connoted, or denoted, was also extracted. The method was applied to the dictionary of near-synonym differences Choose the Right Word. Evaluation of the results was done on a sample of randomly chosen clusters of near-synonyms. A development set was used for adding a few patterns; a separate test set was used for evaluation [7,p.46].

CHAPTER II. USING THE LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE-BASE OF

SYNONYMS IN LEGAL TEXT

II.1.The Notion of Legal Text

Usually legal texts are very different between them. It confirms that creating authoritative legal text is changed in each institution depending on the rights and obligations of delegates. Austin calls them written performance. Lawyers use them as devices for work. There are a tremendous variety of legal texts include: contracts, deeds, wills, orders [27,p.114]. Legal texts depends on their gender stereotypes which are written in legal language. Legal texts contain, often speech acts that are meant to perform various functions. Contracts often contain promises, wills include property transfers after death. Wills are made lifetime and transferable owner with legal right [17, p.98].

Means speech transactions conducted first chambers, which are usually was nearby rituals of various types. Records of such transactions or their written translation became real with the development of literacy. Otherwise contracts, wills and legal codes make a big part of early literacy [13, p.87].

The will, grants of land and other types of property were in England an early type of legal texts. Grants of land and wills usually were made orally with witnesses present, accompanied by some kind of ritual, throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. A class of literate clergymen emerged after England's conversion to Christianity. After some time, wills and property transfers were made as written records as memorials of the transaction, especially for religious institutions that received a gift and had an interest in preserving evidence of the transaction in case of a future dispute. These early texts are more evidentiary than performative or dispositive. They were "after-the-fact records of the binding event that already had taken place", Brenda Danet and Bryna Bogoch said. The legal act’s performance wasn’t in writing signing or sealing of a piece of paper or document. In front of witnesses the transaction was performed orally. That oral ceremony was merely evidenced by a written document than by an operative or dispositive legal document in the modern sense [8, p.74].

A new trend appeared in the late Anglo-Saxon period in which legal texts were no longer merely evidence of land transfers or wills. Over the centuries, the legally operative or dispositive act constituted the writing and signing of the document. The legal transaction was now performed by means of the text.

A very gradual process was the transition in the function of wills. The wills were considered rather weak evidence of the transaction that it purported to record when they were first written down. More reliable and less subject to manipulation was viewed the human memory. The evidentiary value of the text increased when the literacy became more common. An essential ingredient of the transaction was considered to be the written text. Transfers of real property by will must be in writing form, required The English Statute of Wills. The requirement of writing was extended to transfers of personal property upon death by later English statutes. As a consequence, essential became the written evidence of the will Parol evidence rule was the final critical development in the testamentary text [22, p.541].

It stops the introduction of oral discussions’ evidence considering the content of the text the subject to some straight exceptions. Largely irrelevant became what the maker of the will said to the lawyer or to someone else about the contents of the will. With respect to the wills’ law, the evolution from oral transaction to the written one was complete now. The written text mattered now. The text had become the transaction at this stage. A specific type of legal text is the modern will. It is considered to be the definitive expression of the testamentary intentions of its maker [55,p.234].

A good demonstration of how legal texts are introduced into a culture is the development of English wills. At the beginning, these texts serve records of oral transaction. As wills became authoritative in the past few centuries, so did the text. The same happened to the deed, that was used to convey real property. By properly legislating written text can be performed the transaction in question, with wills and deeds [9,p.121].

Authoritative written texts aren’t required by all private legal transactions. A good example can be contracts. All three major stages can be seen in progression in the law of contracts, from the exclusively oral to the authoritative written text. Even today, it’s not necessary that contracts to be in writing. It can be completely oral, just like it was in Anglo-Saxon England. Mary and John made an enforceable contract if John promises Mary to mow her lawn tomorrow for a certain amount of money and she agrees. A contract can be made in oral form also, memorialized by a written record that contains some or all of its terms. For example, Maru enters an electronic store and agrees orally to by a computer that has to be delivered in a week and installed in her office. The only written document might be a sales receipt that states "computer and installation." This is an oral agreement accompanied by an evidentiary text, just like an oral Anglo-Saxon will whose terms are written down by a monk. The sales receipt writing out doesn’t perform the transaction. The receipt is the evidence of the oral event; it is accomplished orally. In this case the receipt is not the contract, the contract is the agreement the parties made will be crucial what the parties said to each other, if there is a subsequent dispute about the agreement.

Some types of contracts are enforceable, a result of the Statute of Frauds, if there is a record of this kind. It means that there needs to be a memorandum of the most important terms, not that the whole contract has to be in writing. It’s only needed basically a written evidence that there was actually an oral agreement. Some kind of writing must evidence many contracts relating to real property [41, p.532] .

As a result, statutes have been interpreted quite freely during this period. No official texts and accurate, it is difficult and dangerous to focus too much on the words of the statute. To cite Baker once again the medieval courts "has no authentic texts available to them, and argument in court rarely on the exact wording of a statute." Medieval judges were able to engage in "creative exegesis", which often depends as much on politics as on the letter of the statutes.
      But in the late fifteenth century, the laws of England underwent a significant change. He became – in the words Plucknett "deliberate adoption of specific proposals contained in specific texts." Text status was not simply a proof of the law, but it is the law itself. Verbs do not refer to what the king "appointed" or what Parliament has "settled". The statutes also illustrated another important distinction between evidence and authoritative texts. Previous laws were essentially a type of transcript or minutes by a bureaucrat at the chancellery on a decision taken by Parliament. In contrast, an authoritative text is considered to have been written by the person or body who adopted them. Of course, in reality, these texts are drawn up by bureaucrats or lawyers. But the courts will regard the words of a modern, like those of the testator, as well as the legislature deems as the author of a statute.
   There was now a greater respect for the written text. Consequently, the judges felt increasingly constrained by language text itself. As we will see later in this article, growing authoritarian status text naturally led, though not necessarily in a interpretation[39,p.76].
      The other main source of law in a common law system is legal advice. A judicial opinion contains motivate a judge to support a decision. Early English Judges undoubtedly gave oral opinions. First written documents was based on legal statements on England in the late 13th century. These, as would be expected, samples were just started. They contained summaries of the arguments of lawyers and judges' decisions. They were originally designed as learning tools for law students. Critically, these reports of what happened in court was not written by judges, but by students and practitioners who were present in the courtroom [9, p.87].
      It seems that by the fifteenth century lawyers have begun to treat descriptions of court proceedings, not just reports as interesting or educational what happened in court, but as real sources of law. This of course was the beginning of common law, where judges make legal rules to decide cases serving as precedents for future decisions.
      However, the text did not become authoritative legal opinions on how the text is legal. English lawyers were aware of this distinction, referring to status as Lex scripta ("written law"), which compared to non Scripta lex common law. To this day, the common law remains relatively oral, especially in England.  English judges, including appellate judges, can still decide cases orally, and their opinions may or may not be reported.  Although it has become unusual, it is still possible for an English lawyer or judge to invoke an oral (unreported) decision as a precedent that should be followed in a later case.

The highly authoritative nature of the statutory text has promoted a tendency to interpret statutes by close analysis of the words of the text. Judicial opinions, in contrast, are interpreted more by legal reasoning than by means of textual analysis. To decide the rule established by a precedential case, a common-law judge or lawyer traditionally must consider the facts of the case and how it was decided, and then use reasoning to determine which legal principle was necessary to produce the outcome. That principle was known as the holding or ratio decidendi of the case. The text of the opinion is generally felt to be very helpful in identifying the holding, but it is traditionally not considered conclusive [10, p.232].

It is worth observing that judicial opinions are more textual in the United States. At the end of the eighteenth century, American judges began to issue written opinions. In fact, most American jurisdiction require it. Even though books containing judicial opinions are still called "reports" in the United States, they are no longer the result of a "reporter" going to court and "reporting" the proceedings. Rather, they consist almost entirely of opinions written by the judges themselves, and are normally published verbatim. The end result is that today–at least, in the United States–what an appellate judge says–for example, during oral argument–has no value as precedent. What matters, for legal purposes, is what appellate judges write in their opinions. This has led to a greater emphasis on the text in determining the holding or ratio decidendi of a case. Judicial opinions are still felt to be different from statutes in the United States, but the distinction is starting to blur [2,p.58].

Therefore, the legal texts, especially authoritative texts, tend to be created or executed in very formal ways. Wills are a good example. The text of the will itself is quite formal, in the sense that most wills follow a relatively rigid structural format and are written in what is commonly known as legalese. Once the will has been drafted, the testator typically gathers in a room with two witnesses. The testator declares that this is his will and signs it in the presence of the witnesses. The witnesses, who must see the testator sign or acknowledge the will, then each sign the will as well.

Although the rules are less strict than they once were, defects in the execution process can still be fatal. Many common-law jurisdictions require that each witness sign the will in the other's presence. Suppose that a testator goes to one witness, declares that a document is his will, and has the witness sign it. He replicates the process with another witness the next day, outside of the presence of the first witness. In such jurisdictions, the will is not valid.

There are a number of reasons that the text of wills must be executed with these relatively strict formalities. The main reason is to ensure that this text is, in fact, intended to be the testator's will. It is not just a draft of a will, or a casual list with ideas of who should get the testator's possessions when she dies. Rather, it must be meant to be a legally operative document that will actually give away the testator's possessions upon death. Anyone who goes through the rigid formalities of executing the will should be aware of the act's consequences. In other words, the formalities and ritual help us identify this unambiguously as an authoritative legal text [12, p.63].

The situation is different with contracts, which as we have observed can be oral and relatively informal. Certain types of contractual transactions must be evidenced by a writing, but most need not be. Even when the provisions of an agreement are reduced to writing, the signing of the writing can occur without any particular formalities (although giving a handshake or drinking a glass of champagne may be customary in some situations). The greater informality makes sense in light of the fact that most people engage in numerous contracts during their lifetimes, such as ordering a cup of tea or promising to pay the owner of a parking lot for the privilege of temporarily parking one's car there. Making authoritative texts of the content of each agreement would not be practical.

The lower level of formality does have a drawback: it may be unclear whether the parties have made a contract or not. Many contracts cases revolve around whether the parties made an agreement that is legally enforceable, or whether they were merely involved in preliminary discussions or negotiations. In contrast, someone who has gone through the formalities of executing a will is highly unlikely not to know that the result is a legally valid will [7, p.85].

In the area of public law, statutes-which, like wills, are very textualized-usually are enacted with great solemnity and according to established procedures. Since the early 1400s it has been established in England that a statute must be debated and accepted by both houses, lords and commons, and then receive the assent of the monarch. Most American jurisdictions have similar requirements embodied in their constitutions. Promulgation or publication may also be required. The purpose of these formal procedures is to guarantee that it a piece of paper or parchment does, in fact, constitute a particular type of authoritative legal text: a statute [43,p.86].

Once a legal document has been formally executed or enacted, it would seem to be a trivial matter to determine what is part of the text and what is not. It is certainly true that the formalities of executing a text like a statute usually make the content of the statute sufficiently clear. Only text that has gone through the formal enactment process is part of the relevant statute. Explanatory materials or reports by legislative committees are not part of the text, although they may sometimes be helpful in resolving ambiguities. The same holds for wills. Whatever textual material comes after the title "Last Will and Testament," and before the signature, is part of the will. Such clarity is one of the reasons for requiring formal execution [3, p.203].

A consequence is that additions and changes to the text must be made in an equally formal manner. A legislature cannot delete a sentence in a statute by ordering the clerk to cross it out on the official copy, even if a majority votes in favor of the idea and it obtains presidential approval or royal assent. Rather, the legislature must enact a new statute, with all the requisite formalities, that declares that the previous statute is to be amended by striking out the sentence.

Formalities required for textual modification of private documents are usually somewhat less strict, because they were originally enacted or executed with fewer formalities. There are a number of exceptions, of course, such as written contracts and wills. Like a statute, a will can be modified only by a formal amendment, called a codicil, which must be executed following the same procedures as the will itself [16, p.288].

While the legislature may be expected to know how to properly amend a statute, ordinary citizens are far less aware of the textual conventions of the law when it comes to private legal transactions. Suppose that Aunt Hattie, who had no children, has a will leaving all her property to her favorite charity. After she dies, a list is found in her safe deposit box that gives various personal property to her nieces and nephews upon her death. Is the list part of the text of the will? Although there are exceptions, the answer is no in most Anglo-American jurisdictions. The reason is that the list was not properly executed, so it never became authoritative text and therefore has no legal effect. Aunt Hattie would doubtless be dismayed by the outcome.

A final example comes from contract law. Suppose that a business owner sends a letter soliciting bids to buy ten new computers, to be installed by the seller. The letter states that the computers are meant to run a complex software application. A vendor offers to sell and install the computers for $50,000 and sends the vendor a contract, which both the business owner and the vendor sign. Before signing, the vendor assures the business owner that the computers will run the software. The written contract sets out the terms of the sale, states that the computers are not warranted to be fit for any particular purpose, and contains a "merger" or "integration" clause declaring that this is the entire agreement between the parties. If the computers later do not run the software properly, many people would be surprised to learn that traditionally courts do not consider the oral assurances about the software to be enforceable, because they were not contained in the text of the contract. The integration or merger clause essentially turns the written document into not just a record of the agreement, but an authoritative text that has become the contract itself .

In recent years, courts have tried to mitigate the harshness of these textual conventions in various ways, especially where ordinary people with no legal training were involved. Even with such reforms, however, it is clear that legal text is something quite different from ordinary speech and writing [3, p.62].

Perhaps the closest analogy to legal texts are religious texts like the Bible. For many believers, the Bible is not just a record of the relationship between God and his people, or inspirational writings by saintly people. Rather, they view it as an authoritative text that contains the words of God himself. Though the words were drafted by mere mortals like Moses and St. Paul, it is God who speaks through the text. This is quite parallel to legal texts, like statutes and wills, which are drafted by clerks or lawyers, but are deemed to be the authoritative expression of the legislature or testator in whose name they were written. This tends to promote a very literal interpretation, as well as strong prohibitions against adding to or subtracting from the text [5,p.43].

II.2.The Specific of the Language of Law

Language as a system of symbols and signs. Types of language.
The language is a necessary condition of the existence of abstract thinking. He appears with consciousness and thinking. Language is the materialization of thought in written and oral speech. There is no language outside thinking and vice versa. They are an inseparable unity. Language is thought to be charged coating touch is "linguistic coat" of the mind, is the entity that provides a livelihood obvious discernible human thoughts [8,p.48].
Language is predestined to serve as a means to obtain and strengthen knowledge, preservation and transmission. Language fulfills a very important role because thoughts are in an ideal form without can be perceived by the senses. And languages such thoughts confer a form of words that can be perceived by the senses.
Language is used not only in the expression of thought, and in the training of their own. In all areas of human activity, thoughts are expressed through language. In the logic of language constituted the port name formalized language. In ordinary language this language words are replaced by certain letters and symbols, which is a symbolic language. In the field of thoughts expressed by legal language.
The first important contributions to the analysis of legal language belonging representatives
German historical school of law, in particular by J. Grimm and FC de Savigny. First consider that the right and legal language were born together, because a legal idea can not be expressed correctly only in a specific language legal sciences. Therefore legal history is also a history of the development and maturation of legal concepts [10,p. 50 ].
Language is a system of signs and symbols that has the function to fix, maintain and transmit information in the knowledge of reality and communication between people. Languages are classified according to several criteria. There are spoken and written languages, formalized and documented, consisting of words and ideographic.
One of the major classification of languages is achieved according to the
origin, that languages are divided into natural languages, artificial languages and semi-artificial languages.
Natural languages are languages that arise spontaneously, it is gradually and are
inseparable from the people, that is their spokesman. Natural language is a sign system that was established during the development of humanity to act as communication and knowledge.
They are actually national languages. Artificial languages are languages that are created by humans, based on natural language, consciously, for certain purposes, in particular to convey accurate and the Economy, especially science. Artificial language is made for special problem-solving in specific areas of knowledge.

By creating artificial language are solves the problem of analysis and reflection search means of the results. An example of artificial language can serve programming languages, languages of logic and mathematics, languages signal (rail and water system) ciphers [7,p.33].
Languages, social and human sciences can be considered semi-artificial languages,
because they include terminology in natural language and terminology and special symbolic certain predetermined operating rules. Partly artificial languages are systems of signs including signs of natural and artificial language. When they are assigned languages sciences, for example, the physics or the law.
Natural language is universal, because in this language can convey information about any field, even if not always in the most successful. Also, this language is vague, because admitting polysemy and not based on some universal principles of training. If there natural language concepts, polysemy statements, vague is admissible, then the semi-artificial languages, science is best that they be removed. From the perspective of legal language can differentiate logic as follows:
– Theoretical language that is the language of legal theory, legal laws;
language empirically applied, the language of the legal analysis, interepretării rules of law;
-Language object or the object of legal language is the system of signs and
Natural language and the symbols that represent and reflect formalized real objects that you require lawyer in the legal activity [4,p.39].

Legal language and judicial language.
Law requires linguistic means to refer to legal concepts and express exactly the right ideas at law. For example, to function effectively carry laws must be impeccable both in content and in form and language laws should be one exactly. In law, we need precision, it does not allow the presence of paradoxes and sophistries, use a semi-artificial language, operating with certain terms – words and joints words, special terms. One of the main features of legal language is accuracy. Clarity, in addition to accuracy and simplicity is one of the important qualities of legal language. If the rule of law will be sent to print exact language, it will be understood and executed. For that language it is also feature
emotional neutrality: facts and events must be described in legal language neutral expressions emotional perspective [25,p.45].
Legal language is a semi-artificial language, because although this language achieve as upper in legislative work, even in this case he keeps elements of natural language. But among legal terms you may encounter terms expressed by several words that are not common to natural language, literally.
Legal language fulfills certain functions:
1.setting function of legal knowledge;
They are expressed in sentences that are not possible outside legal nomination operation performed using the language.
2.constitutive function b;
Legal language is the medium that forms the legal knowledge and legal consciousness.
3. communicative function.
Legal language is the instrument of legal knowledge transmission.
4. Argumentative function;
Legal language serves the foundation of assertions and legal knowledge in general.
In the field of operating with a lot of terms that are known universe
legal discourse. These are legal terms and those in the natural language used in the legal sense [25,p.52 ].
One of the forms of legal language is legal language, which must be simple and
precisely because the legal rule to properly convey the message. You must avoid the ambiguous terms and the vague uncertainties.

Another form of legal language is the language of justice. "The language of justice is that form of
legal language that are used in judicial activity in both criminal and civil cases by the criminal investigation body, judge or lawyer. "
Also can speak of doctrinal language that is the language
develop doctrines in law, the theoretical support of the right language, the language of the law theorists.
Legal language (regulatory, judicial or doctrine) that specialized language must be
interpreted, that explained, is about grammatical interpretation, language legal discourse [13,p.49].
The literature mentions, usually a set of rules for the interpretation of normative legal language, foreign doctrine formulated:
1) Interpretation vulgar or loquendi (what we might call a literal interpretation) carepresupune adoption meaning "natural" primary terms used;
2) Interpretation of ab etymologia (ie etymological interpretation), which means taking the original meaning of the word – for example in the case of a legal text with considerable seniority, which includes terms that are no longer found in contemporary language or are found with a meaning different from the original;
3) Interpretation of ab ratione legis strict (basically, an official interpretation) – that simply taking the sense of the legislature itself a word or phrase. When there is such an explanation of the terms used in a legal document, emanating right from the legislature, it is official and binding character performer. This type of interpretation is used not only in situations where the legislature wishes to clarify the legal meaning of a term in the national language, but when you would like to impose a completely new term, not found in the lexicon (an original creation or a takeover by translation in another national language).
4) Interpretation of abratione legis-is the type of interpretation requires the interpreter to the penetration of the spirit of the law and taking proper meaning of the terms used, beyond or even against their literal meaning) [11,p.47].
Interpretation of the material pro subject (at the limit, a contextual) – the terms used by the legislature should be taken in the sense required by the case before trial, even if this would work as a departure from their meaning "natural".
The rules in question must be used in accordance with the particular legal text.
In legal language use rules, maxims, adages (arguments) that are made in
Latin. Maxima (or rules) are legal brief definitions presenting principles that apply to different types of cases. Adagio (aphorisms or arguments) are sentences, general formulas direction when the law is obscure or insufficient [9 ,p.27].
Most adage formulated by jurists Latin. However, they are now employed, the sentence keeping the exact form, the original meaning when language set latină.Exemple legal highs:

1. Ditto East non esse et non sampling – not to be or not to be proved is the same. It is envisaged that the area of any claim must be accompanied by evidence to confirm its truth.

2. Mala grammatica non Viti Chart – faulty grammar not affect the validity of a legal act. I mean if uniitermeni are wrong spelling or grammatical point of view the act is valid. In legal documents is not welcome excessive formalism. March Communis Error FACIT-ius common error is created by law. When there is a collective fault and the victim is in good faith act remains valid [7,p.49].

It identifies specific functions using the Latin adage
legal discourse:
1) mnemonic function;
Aphorisms are concise and easy to memorize. Sometimes adages are not set entirely in legal language usually his first ought to be sufficient to evoke the whole principle of law that aphorism expresses.
2) The role of conservation law principles;

Using national languages predispose to alterations in the exact meaning of the principle of law, the tendency to use the terms interchangeably, which never shows absolute identity of meaning and reference. From this point of view, learning the maxim in its original form, in Latin, use the form that is international, the advantage of keeping the exact form of the principle of law raised, even in the context of its use in speech made in national languages, avoiding Such risks polysemy.
3) The position of foundation of legal reasoning.
There are times when the law does not regulate in detail certain issues that do occur in society and are required to be solved. Beyond the arguments of analogy, the legal system always provides a solid foundation legal reasoning, since, as we have shown, they are fundamental laws on which the legal system itself. Thus, a consistent and clear legal argument that starts from the certainty of a principle of law, is immune to criticism of arbitrariness, even if some text is based on the law.
4) function to enhance the solemnity of legal discourse;
Finally, using the Latin adage has the role to give solemnity legal discourse, be it by a lawyer, or even motivate judgments [6,p.24].

Erotetică logical term. Nature and structure of the question.
Knowledge development is going through the transition from judgments, the truth of which was found before the judgment, newer, richer in content. This change is achieved by sequencing following steps: putting the question; looking for new information; answer the question wording. The question generally is geared towards developing, specifying or supplementing information. The grammatical form of the question is interrogative sentence.
The proper questions not necessarily assure obtaining truth, real answers, but the questions wrong, incorrect and may even prevent exclude getting real answers. In terms of logic, the question is a sentence that requires information, or calls for a reply. After its formal organization, the question is very close to the court [14,p.32].
Department that deals with the study of logic is called logical erotetic questions.

The concept comes from the word erotema which means question logic is a logic section of the study logical-semantic qualities of interrogative sentences, study nature, functions, structure and conditions right questions. Question is a form of logical, geared towards getting the response as a judgment or more judges . It is a thought expressed by an interrogative sentence, which is oriented towards specifying or supplementing knowledge. The question is to clarify the vague information and bringing new information. "The question is a transition from unknown met, a way to fill a gap of knowledge".
Questions fulfill certain functions:
1. Cognitive function – is that the question is a means of searching for information, linking it known to the unknown. Cognitive function in question is realized in the form of search and obtaining a reply. This function keeps the filling, and delivers accurate representations previously obtained about objects and phenomena of reality.
2. Communicative function – is manifested by the fact that the question is a means of transmitting information, communication information.
Question longer fulfills other functions including: control, systematic, critical psychological [14,p.52].
Binomial question answering plays a role in the legal sphere. In the right questions arise in the course of discussing draft laws, prosecutions, court research, a criminal trial, the witnesses. Searching for answers to investigators and judges are content investigation, judicial procedures, testimony, and other court actions.

The investigation activities binomial question and answer determines main research orientations civil and criminal cases.

English for lawyers is found, due to the particular importance for the company at the forefront of the research field of specialized languages / languages for professional purposes. Harmonious progress of a state, internal order and external image scale harmonized with other international legal systems depend on the progress of the legal coverage of prompt and appropriate responses that it offers society requirements. Legal language is recognized as one of the most difficult languages specialist, which requires a methodical effort sustained attention and focus from the teacher both on legal concepts and how to define them and contextualize them lexically. Translation of legal text is the interface between the language, the art of translation and legal, being strongly influenced by changes in the world of contemporary globalization, cross-border movement of labor, unified economic market [9,p.41].
Word translation with origins in the Latin translatio is usually a play, a shift of meaning of a text in the language that is written in a language other target. Methods of making the translation is done either by a literal rendering of the text in question (formal equivalence) or paraphrase (dynamic equivalence). Dynamic Equivalence sacrifice some semantic aspects of the text, rendering exact text and weigh in favor of transmitting the essence of meaning, while formal equivalence translation leans toward a word – for – word of the original text.

To perform an effective translation, translators have to know both the target language, which they translate as the language to which it belongs that text; have knowledge and socio-cultural specialist if the text is a specialized one. A translator will have to prove its competence through how to join the translation paraphrase word – for – word by typographical equivalence of the two languages [12,p.45].
Translating the language learning technique (and hence the specialized languages) has been a controversial topic that has oscillated between emphasizing the benefits and burdens that its application can bring to students. Thus, in an attempt to identify the best ways of training and learning, there have been extreme period in which much of the work was devoted student texts and translations of foreign language (L2), and the period in which the translations were considered as unproductive, even a slowdown factor of language learning due to longer and intense use of the mother tongue: "I never translates: interpreting.

2. By extension, the pros and cons of using translations into English as language learning general and specialized English as a language in a particular field are the same. Rejection phenomenon occurred while translation methods / approaches advocating for a greater emphasis on the role of language in effective communication [23,p.51].

Translation was used preferentially as work technique method Grammar – Translation, which was defined target learning a language by reading into the language: the way foreign language knowledge was over between grammar exercises and translations of L1 in L2. This method used extensively until the 1940s, and in some parts of the world even today is considered a hindrance rather than a factor of progress in the way students want to make a qualitative leap towards using free creative foreign language. Direct method, in turn, eliminated the translations of the techniques of language teaching and learning. Cognitive Approach to refurbish translating into a better position by recognizing the contribution of conscious learning addressed in the activities of discernment contrast between L1 and L2 [ 9,p.105].
Reform Movement prioritize speech in a language foreign to scriere3 emphasized the role of language as a vehicle of communication, insisted on the need contextualization and speech acts culminated on reserve in the use of translations, with the view expressed by Audio-lingual method (translations only advanced without any communicative purpose) and communicative approach (translations supported only when absolutely necessary and without them recognizing a role in communicative language learning).
Conveyed objections to the way in which students could benefit, or no translation of texts refers most often to the fact that translation is a difficult exercise, demanding accessible especially those with an intermediate level of proficiency in foreign language proficiency. Thus, students need to use outside expertise at the lexical, grammatical, stylistic. The time they spend translating is equivalent to a duration of using and thinking in L1, to equate concepts between L1 and L2. Using spontaneous, creative language is so slow [33,p.45].
Another common objection concerns the nature little communicative translation, itself, a static activity, less offering to fulfill a basic requirement of the communicative approach: each activity has the purpose, a sequence of spoken or written communication in – a circumstance that mimics real life.
Need to put into perspective the importance of balanced role of translation it deserves led to closer scrutiny of the activities with the focus translations. The question is, in fact, if the translation can be converted into a communicative activity that meets established features of the communicative approach: the use of authentic materials, providing a communicative ends for each activity, integrating the four basic skills, work pair / group activities for duplication contextualization of situations that occur in real life [20,p.58].
Translations may be preceded by other related activities: ex. studying a legal concept framework to read a message written to extract specific information to extract the general idea, theme of the text to answer questions and address their questionson that concept, to identify legal terms in the text to identify 'false friends'. Translation work itself may take the form of communicative activities: teamwork or pair with correct translation of a team to another, the translation of fragments within different groups, followed by reassembly of the entire text; with a translation of the same text by Team A of L1 to L2 and from L2 to L1 B to compare the original with the final version, etc.. Closing activities can focus on practicing some grammatical or lexical items, may take the form of writing of glossaries, to draw up a presentation from the legal concept behind the translation, role play, the transfer of information in text format spreadsheet, etc..
In foreign language teaching communicative perspective, the use of authentic materials is a prerequisite. Widdowson pointed out the contrast between the traditional view of simplified material presented to students for educational purposes and modern design, which requires the use of materials autentice.4
Authentic materials are defined by contrast with the inauthentic, written to meet specific educational purposes and presenting features as demonstrative appearance or artificiality that makes them hard to come true. These are defined as texts written by Wallace L2 users as their mother tongue, to serve a purpose in real life other than pedagogic.

5 fund sources fueling authentic materials are numerous: the internet, newspapers, magazines and books literature, legal documents authentic [55,p.91].

CHAPTER III. SYNONYMS IN THE LANGUAGE OF LAW

III.1. Meanings of the Synonyms Based on Legal Texts and Their Translation

Trying to use dictionary we can take the following word for analysis:

Abuse- as a noun this word has the following synonyms as corruption, injustice crime, misdeed [58,p.21]. This is an ideographic synonym that’s why we cannot use its synonyms in some examples as:

Abuse can affect virtually anyone from all walks of life, including men, women, children, and seniors.

Trying to change the word abuse with one of its synonyms we lose the sense:

Misdeed can affect virtually anyone from all walks of life, including men, women, children, and seniors.

The word abuse find its meanings in Romanian Legal Dictionary as :

Abuz (in exercitarea unui drept );

Insulta, jignire ;

Exces de putere;

Abuz de drept;

Proces intentat din șicană;

Taking the word abuse in combination with some others we can obtain the following meanings:

Abuse of discretion;

ex: In this legal process you made abuse of discretion that’s why you will be punished for this. And we can translate it as: În incinta acestui proces tu ai făcut abuz de putere, ceea ce înseamna că vei fi piedepsit.

Abuse of distress;

ex: Their parents intended to make justice because on their son was made an abuse of distress. And the translation can be: Părinții băiatului vor să facă dreptate deoarece împortiva fiului lor s-a facut abuz de drept.

We move on and find the second word act. According to dictionary we find that:

Act- is the process of making something and has the following synonyms like [56,p.45]:

-move;

-action;

-deed;

-operation;

-performance;

-step;

Like an example we can use the following one:

Knowing more about how Acts of Parliament we can help people read them more effectively./ Știind mai multe despre Actele Parlamentului noi vom putea ajuta oamenii să citească mult mai efficient.

The word act is classified in the second type as stylistic synonyms and also trying to include one of its synonyms we find a little bit different meaning:

– Knowing more about how Moves of Parliament we can help people read them more effectively;

– Knowing more about how Actions of Parliament we can help people read them more effectively;

– Knowing more about how Performance of Parliament we can help people read them more effectively;

The word act find its meanings in Romanian Legal Dictionary as :

Act; acțiune; lege; decret; document;

We put the word act in association with other and we find that it changes it’s meaning:

Overt Act:

Our justice start to overt act against this people that wants democracy.

Justiția noatsră a început o executare împotriva oamenilor care voiau democrație.

Recongnitory act:

Legislation is designed to make a recognitory act for men and women who are unemployed.

Legislația este hotărâtă să facă un act reconstitutiv perntru femeile și bărbații șomeri.

Act of attainder:

Public acts of attainder may contain the full text provided by parliamentary debates.

Actele Legii privind pierderea unor drepturi pot fi incluse în textile din dezbaterile parlamentare.

-Act of bankcrupcy :

Acts of banckruptcy which is signed by legislation is taken from the sources of public general acts.

Actele de debitoriud ce justifică falimentul, semnate de legislație au fost luate din sursele actelor generale publice.

Act of grace:

Current Law Statutes annotated the acts of grace for policemen who catch the criminals.

Statutul actual de lege a adnotat actele de grațiere pentru oamnenii legii care rețin criminalii.

Act of God:

People consider democracy an act of God.

Oamenii consideră democrația un act de forță majoră [61,p. 37].

We also can mention the rest of it’s semnification :

-Act oh honour- act de intervenție în favoarea trăgătorului sau a girantului unei cambii;

– Act of indemnity – lege de legalizarea unor acte de data încheierii lor;

– Act in pais – fapt care cade sub juresdicția locală a țării;

– Acts of sederunt- decizii ale celor ce au luat parte la o ședință;

-Act of settlement – lege de reglementare a succesiunii la Coroana Angliei;

-Act of voluntary jurisdiction- act de jurisdicție grațioasă;

– To execute an act- a redacta un act;

– To draw on an act –a valida un act;

The next word that I want to take is the noun action which also can be take as an stylistic synonym.

Action- acțiune, act; acțiune în justiție, proces;

As synonyms we find as:

-activity -process

-deal – reaction

-force – response

-plan -movement

Ex: The action of legal system of Northern Ireland is specialised on comprising the Supreme Court of Judicature.

Acțiunile sistemului legal din Irlanda de Nord sunt specializate în cuprinderea Curții Supreme Judecătorești.

The are some other combination where the meaning of the word action is changed [55,p.57]:

Affirmative action;

Criminal cases specialised on affirmative actions are illegal in UK.

Cazurile criminale specializate pe acțiunile constatatoare sunt interzise în Marea Britanie.

Arbitrary action;

Appeals for state acts are made on arbitrary actions that are forbidden.

Recursurile statale sunt bazate pe actiunile arbitrare ce sunt interzise.

Cross action;

Great Britain as a unitary state has his own legal system and its own organisation cross actions.

Marea Britanie ca stat unitary are propriul system legal și proria organizația a acțiunilor reconvenționale.

Customary action

The membership of European Community has the last court cases where they have to decide some customary actions.

Membrii Comunității Europene menține ultimele cazuri unde trebuie să se ia decizii asupra câtorva acte de rutină.

Fraudolent action

Some tribunals private citizens from paying the bills because of fraudulent actions that was made by companies.

Câteva tribunal priveaza cetățenii de plătirea unor facturi din cauza actelor frauduloase din parte unor companii.

Indirect action – acțiune subrogatorie;

Mixed action- acțiune mixtă;

Permissible action- act licit;

Petitory action- acțiune petitorie;

Suspensive action- act suspensiv(termen de condiție,etc)

Action in abatement of legacies- acțiune în reducerea legatelor;

Action on the case- acțiune prevăzută de CL oridecâte ori lipsește o acțiune specifică;

Action for restoration – acțiune de repunere in starea de mai inainte

Action of writ – actiune împotriva reclamantului ce a notificat un ordin judiciar necorespunzător

To bring an action – a introduce o actiune

To take an action – a urmări in justitie.

Moving on we can find another word like agreement [58,p.47].

As synonyms we find it like:

Accord; – Conciliation;

Arrangement; – Understanding;

Compliance; – Meditation;

Concession; – Accordance;

Trying to look deeper in the sense of this word we find that it meanings is very rich.

Agreement – convenție, contract, act juridic, tranzacție, consimțămînt;

Ex. Our parents make this agreement to keep us in this school.

Părinții noștri au făcut acest consențământ pentru a ne ține în scoala asta.

Antenuptial agreement – convenție matrimonial;

Ex. In Great Britain judicial system linked with family rights is based on antenuptial agreement.

În Marea Britanie sistemul judiciar legat de drepturile familiei este bazat pe convenția matrimonial.

Binding agreement – convenție irevocabilă;

Ex. USA has in their Supreme Courts people who worked ony with binding agreements.

Statele Unite au avut în componența Corpului Suprem oameni care lucrau numai cu convențiile irevocabile.

Collective agreement – contract colectiv;

Ex. The transfers of the collective agreement was sight by the Prime Minister of Moldova.

Transferurile contractelor colective au fost semnate de prim-ministru Republicii Moldova.

Fiduciary agreement – contract fiduciar;

Gentleman’s agreement – acord între state a cărui respectare se bizuie pe bună credință;

Oppressive agreement – convenție leonină;

Partition agreement – convenție de partaj;

Agreement for a lease – convenție de concesionare;

Agreement pocket – act secret ce anulează sau modifică unul anterior ;

Agreement for sale – act de vînzare;

To enter an agreement – a incheia un contract;

To execute an agreement – a indeplini o convenție;

To reach an agreement – a cădea de acord;

Going on with our searching we find the word assignment [60,p.68].

Like synonyms we can take the words:

Assignment – cesiune , transfer, atribuire, document de transfer;

Tranfer; – Practise;

Duty; – Appointment;

Chore; – Post;

New assignment – duplică dată de reclamant replicii pârâtului;

Ex. MR.Smith took the position of defendent and make new assignment for instance.

Domnul Smith a luat poziția acuzatului și a făcut o dublicată nouă a replicii reclamantului.

Assignment of action – acordarea unei acțiuni;

Assignment of dower – partea de succesiune ce revine văduvei;

Assignment of errors – cerere pentru anularea unei decizii date in ultimă instanță;

Assignment effected by novation – cesiune prin novațiune;

Assignment of obligations – cesiune de obligații;

Assignment of personal estate – transfer de bunuri mobile;

Assignment of a patent – acordare de brevet;

Assignment of waste – atribuirea unui teren asupra căruia se pot exercita unele servituți;

The next legal word that a chose is case [59,p.112].

Case – caz, cauza, proces, instanță, speță, afacere;

Synonyms:

Caisson; – Lawsuit;

Cause ; – Litigation;

Proceeding; – Prosecution;

Accidental case – caz fortuit;

Ex. The defendant claimed that it was an accidental case and he did not know about the consequences.

Acuzatul susținea că acesta a fost un caz fortuit și că el nu știa nimic depre consecințe.

Action of the case – acțiune în daune interese prevăzută de CL;

Divorce case – proces de divorț;

Ex. The biggest divorce case of the year made Great Britain believe that money is the most important.

Cel mai auzibil caz de divorț a făcut Marea Britanie să creadă că cel mai important pe lumea aceasta sunt doar banii.

Leading case – precedent judiciar;

Special case – proces in care părțile cer instanței să statueze numai asupra problemelor de drept;

Case book – colecție jurisprudentiala;

Case law – jurisprudență;

Case of need – situație în care emitentul și girantul unei cambii indică o terță persoană în cazul în care platanu este onorată;

No case – hotărâre de respingere ;

To get up a case – a instrui o cauză;

To make out a case – a justifica o plângere judiciară;

To state the case – a expune faptele;

Charge –sarcină, datorie, garanție, responsabilitate, instrucțiune,acuzație; vină,cheltuieli, taxe;

The next our word is charge;

Charge- acuzație;

Free for charge- gratis;

Ex. Our direction made this pills free for charge because some sick people cannot afford them.

Direcția noastră a făcut ca aceste pastille să fie gratuite, din cauză că mulți oameni bolnavi nu pot să și le permiă.

Mortgage charge- privilegiu ipotecar;

Ex Creation of the mortgage charges are very difficult with our legal system of law.

Crearea privilegiilor ipotecare sunt foart dificile în legătură cu sistemul nostrum legal.

On charge of – sub acuzație;

Particularas of charge- carte de acuzare;

Person in charge- repus;

Rent charge- rentă ce grevează un fond;

Subject to the charge- gravat de un privilegiu;

Charge and discharge- debitare și exonerare;

Charges forward- cheltuieli de perceput la predare;

Charges of up keep- obligație alimentară;

Charge sheet- registru ținut de poliție cu numele infractorilor;

To bring a charge against somebody- a acuza pe cineva;

Give somebody in charge- a da pe cineva pe mâna poliției;

To take so in charge- a aresta pe cineva ;

As a word we took conveyance [61,p.158].

Conveyance – transport, transmisie, tradiție, (documente) pentru transfer (de bunuri), transfer de proprietate prin intermediul unor formalități, contract translativ de proprietate;

Synonyms:

Trasmition;

Tradition;

Transfer;

Deed of conveyance – act de cesiune ;

Ex. This deed of conveyance is made on the base of legal act of UK.

Acest act de cesiune is facăt în baza legislației UK.

Derivative/Secondary conveyance – transfer cu titlu derivat (ex. Cedarea unui fond de către proprietar persoanei care posedă), constituire de drepturi reale și înstrăinarea acestora (cu excepția înstrăinării prin testament )

Conveyances in fraud of creditors – înstrăinări în frauda creditorilor;

Original/Primary conveyance – transfer cu titlu original;

Conveyance by record – transfer imobiliar stabilit printr-un act în temeiul unei judecăți sau a legii, parte a pledoariei ce servește ca o introducere în temeiul unei judecăți sau a legii;

Conveyance of a patent-transmiterea dreptului asupra unei patente (brevet) ;

Conveyance of chattels- aport în bunuri și drepturi mobiliare;

Conveyances and transfer duty- taxa asupra tranferului de valori imobiliare;

Searching we find the word claim [59,p.145].

Claim- cerere pretenție, revindecare, creanță, reclamația, acțiune, afirmație;

Synonyms:

Allegation; – Petition;

Application; – Request;

Assertion; -Suit;

Call; – Interest;

Case; – Demand;

Counter Claim- acțiune reconvenționlă;

Enforcibility of the claim- exigibilitatea creanței;

Personal claim- creanță mobiliară;

Claim based on a bill of exchange- acțiune cambilă;

Claim for compensation- acțiune în despăgubiri;

Claim of cognisance – revindecarea jurisdicției(de ătre o instanță inferioară față de una superioară) ;

Claim for damages- acțiune în despăgubiri;

Claim against a state of the banckrupt- cerera creditorului împotriva falitului pentru obținerea dividentului;

Claim of inheritance- act de moștenitor;

Claim of liberty- acțiune privitoare la anumite privilegii și imunități;

Claim of ownership- acțiune pitirorie ;

Claim for possession- acțiune posesorie;

Claim secured by bond- creanță privileginată/ipotecară;

To lay a Claim to- a face cerere pentru ;

To put a claim for something- a pretinde ceva ;

To reject a Claim- a contesta o creanță;

To set up a Claim- a reclama;

Going on with searching we find the word deed [60,p.528].

Deed- acțiune ;

Synonyms:

Accomplishment;

Act;

Action;

Fact;

Deed strecto sensu – act scris și semnat de părți la notariat pe hârtie timbrată

Acquit/claim deed- act de înstrăinare fără pretenții ulterioare din partea achizitorului;

A bare gain and sale deed- act de vânzare fără de garanție;

Delivering of a Deed – predarea actului jurudic către beneficiar;

Execution of a deed- întocmirea unui act juridic;

In deed- în fapt(în opoziție cu/în drept) ;

Trust Deed- act de fidei comis;

Warranty Deed- act de înstrăinare imobiliară cu garanție lipsită de orice sarcină;

Deed of arrangement- compromise între debitor și creditor;

Deed of covenant- act prin care debitorul se obligă la un facere;

Deed of discharge- act de descărcare a unei obligațiuni;

Deed of grant – act de transfer imobiliar;

Deed null and avoid –act nul și neavenit ;

Deed of partnership- contract de societate;

Deed poll- act unialatral(procura dat unui avocat ) ;

Deed of separation- act voluntary de separare a soților cuprinzând atât dispoziții patrimoniale cât și actele referitoare la educatia copiilor;

To record a deed- a înregistra un act juridic;

Estate – avere, proprietate, clasă socială, moșie, patrimoniu, succesiune, stare, condiție [55,p.208];

Synonyms:

Wealth;

Fortune;

Goods;

Assets;

Action for separation of estate – acțiune în separare de bunuri;

Bankrupt’s total estate – bunuri ce formează masa falimentară;

Clear estate – mobil liber de sarcină;

Common estate – bunuri comune;

Coparceny estate – bunuri indivize;

Distribution of estate – impărțirea unei succesiuni;

The fourt estate – presa ;

Future estate – bunuri viitoare;

Indivisum estate – bunuri indivize;

Joint estate – comunitate;

Life estate – proprietate;

Mortgaged real estate – imobil ipotecat;

Net estate – activ succesoral;

Personal estate – bunuri mobiliare;

Separate estate – separație de bunuri;

Taxable estate – bunuri impozabile;

Estate agency – agenție imobiliară;

Estate the fee simple – proprietate deplină;

Estate of suffrance – proprietate dobândită prin prescripție după 15-20 ani;

Estate for years – posesiune temporară, minimum 5 ani;

III.2. Definition, Meaning and Use of the Word RIGHT

As derived from the Latin word directus which means straight, ruler, straight. Correspondent is perfectly identical to the term "jus" – right, lawful. In human society, actions were determined by its necessities. These actions, and individual or joint individuals in the society have however limited that inherently one's personal interests often come into conflict with those of other, which could damage the very existence of society. The diversity and complexity of social relations are necessary to organize and regulate the relations between people or groups of people, to enable coexistence in society [38,p.52].

A human right may be restricted and abuse exercised by another person or group of persons.

Law is a set of rules of behavior in social relations, the main character is mandatory – the need required – for all members of organized society.

From the point of view of the science of law, this notion is understood as positive law (as part of the right objective) and subjective right.

By extension, the law means and science – a subject of higher education – studying these rules in all respects.

Living in an organized, not necessarily people are forced to establish relationships with each other. These relationships cannot be determined at random. From ancient times till nowadays social and economic needs have emerged as relations between people follow certain binding rules of conduct [26,p.254].

Law could be defined as a set of rules or rules of conduct established or sanctioned by the state in the legislative function and whose implementation and compliance is ensured through the exercise of its functions (through administrative or judicial).

Defining civil law must reveal its own traits as independent branch of Roman private law. Thus, we can define as civil law branch Roman law regulating unit and personal non-property relationships of the subjects of law, natural or legal persons, based on their equal rights [58,p.402].

Right – drept, justiție, privilegiu, dreptate;

Absolute right – drept de necontestat;

Ex. The ownership is under the Civil Code and the absolute right of a person is to enjoy and to worked exclusively but the limits are determined by law.

Dreptul de proprietate este în conformitate cu Codul Civil și dreptul necontestat al unei persoane este de a se bucura și a lucrat în exclusivitate, dar limitele sunt stabilite prin lege.

Copy right – drept de autor;

Ex. The protection of copyright and related rights and their governing liability for breach of the Constitution are mentioned in international treaties to which Moldova is party.

Protecția dreptului de autor și drepturile conexe și răspunderea pentru încălcarea lor se reglementează de Constituția Republicii Moldova care sunt menționate în tratatele internaționale la care Republica Moldova este parte.

Grazing right – drept de pășunat;

Ex. Statute of Association of Protection of Forests tried to make a grazing right for people who have lands near the forests.

Asociația Statală de Protecție a Pădurilor a încercat să emită dreptul de pășunat oamenilor care au pământuri lângă păduri.

Human rights – drepturile omului;

Ex. Human rights can be defined generally as those rights which are inert to our nature, without which we cannot live as human beings.

Definiția drepturilor omului poate fi asociată cu acele drepturi care sunt inerte pentru natură, fără de care nu există viață între ființele umane [56,p.306].

Priority right – drept de preferință;

Ex. Priority right is a means of protecting the interests of old shareholders of the company, as the exercise to avoid any reduction of their benefits and their rights on reserves, and loss of market value of the shares because their number multiplication.

Dreptul de preferință constituie un mijloc de protecție a intereselor vechilor acționari ai societății, întrucât exercitarea sa asigură evitarea reducerii beneficiilor acestora și a drepturilor lor asupra rezervelor, precum și deprecierea valorii de piață a acțiunilor societății, datorită înmulțirii numărului lor.

Sovereign rights – drepturi regaliene;

Ex. Shape and perception of sovereign rights, they are interpreted as a form of financial science shift from income taxes domains

Prin forma si modul de percepere a drepturilor regaliene, acestea sunt interpretate de stiinta finantelor ca o forma de trecere de la venituri domeniale la impozite

Unsignable right – drept netransmisibil;

Ex. After paying the fees, the investor acquires unsignable right to use the result in benefits architect specified purpose contract.

Dupa achitarea onorariilor, investitorul capata dreptul netransmisibil de a utiliza rezultatul prestatiilor arhitectului in scopul precizat in contract.

Right of habeas corpus – libertate individuală;

Ex. Right of habeas corpus of physical liberty, his right to act and to move freely, not be held in slavery of being detained, arrested or detained except in the cases and forms as provided by law.

Libertatea individuală privește libertatea fizică a persoanei, dreptul său de a se comporta și de a se mișca liber, de a nu fi ținută în sclavie, de a nu fi reținută, arestată sau deținută decît în cazurile și după formele expres prevăzute de lege.

Rights of neutrals – drepturile neutrilor ;

Ex. “The right for neutrals was invented by those who doesn’t respect the human right”,said the Prime Minister.

“ Drepturile neutrilor au fost inventate de cei care nu respecta drepturile omului”, a spus Prim Ministrul.

Right of preemption – drept de recumpărare;

Ex. Those who doesn’t exercise the right of preemtion in deadline draws will be punished.

Cei care nu vor exercita dreptul de rascumparare in timp vor fi pedepsiti.

And also we can mention that there are many are combinations that draws the word right in different contexts and created different meanings.

Right of self-defence – drept de legitimă apărare;

Right of way – drept de priză;

To act by right – a acționa deplin drept;

To assume a right – a-și asuma un drept;

To go beyond one’s rights – a-și depăși drepturile;

To infringe someone’s – a impieta asupra drepturilor cuiva;

To protect a right – a salvagarda un drept;

To vindicate one’s – a-și verifica dreptul [56, p.302];

Synonyms for the word right can be :

Legal;

Legitimate;

Proper;

Suitable;

Tooking the word right and also made us understand that this is a stylistic synonym. For example as we take one of this synonym and replace it we get the same meaning but not the same stylistic form:

Human rights are some of moral principles that set out the most important standards of human behaviour, and are protected as legal rights in national and international law.

Human legitimate are some of moral principles that set out the most important standards of human behaviour, and are protected as legal rights in national and international law.

Human suitable are some of moral principles that set out the most important standards of human behaviour, and are protected as legal rights in national and international law.

From this examples we understand that it doesn’t make sense to replace the synonyms because we don’t get the real meaning.

III.3 Translation of the Legal Texts

Translation of legal text always raised issues of adequacy of terminology.

Everything starts from there (in any language) to a specialized subset of terms that have specific meanings in the regulatory framework.

Whether you call this subset "specialized language", "technical terms", "legal jargon" or referring to "independent meaning" all accept that the right uses a number of terms whose meaning is not easy to distinguish the normal speak [12,p.78].
The situation is even more strange is that the term customary in the current language with a sense takes on a different meaning in legal terminology. It is sometimes a fault meaning that comes to twin homonymy (ex, "action" issued by a company is linked quite far with the "action" taken by one person). Layman listener understand the word, but is confused by the meaning assigned.
This parallelism provides a basis for the "democratization" of terms. Thus, if Reminder "action" meaning that was taken in the common language does not differ greatly from that of legal jargon (apart from synecdoche frequent designation of the term "action" of any interest in a company, whether is civil or commercial, or limited liability). On the other hand, much "firm" is used in common language (especially journalists) meaning "company", although its legal meaning is the identifier of a professional [45, p.67].

So here is the existence of a "parallel universe" in the Romanian language is likely to be the source of confusion. If you double the stakes and added a foreign language, the problems become more complex. We have two languages and within each one specialized language. You have to realize a parallel not only between each lexical unit equivalent of each language to another language, but to detect and specific meanings of terms that form the legal jargon in any language.

Here comes but what differentiates the translation of a legal text (simple) linguistic analysis. Language is an element that keeps the national specificity. Every state has (the vast majority) a (single) official language. Therefore, the normative content is legal scaffolding of that state will be written in a particular language. In the subset of the language will develop legal jargon. The terms of this jargon will reflect specific legal institutions legal system of the State concerned [36,p.90].
Law is not a universal continuum. It evolves both temporally and territorially. State-specific legal institutions are never identical to that found in another state. They may be the same or can be different. However, a legal document written in English (official) of a State should (sometimes) be translated into the official language of another state. With the European integration process is one of the pillars of harmonization of Member States of the European Union. The problem has become so new values and dedicated studies have appeared (see, for theorizing these issues, M. Galdi, Comparative law and legal translation in "The European Legal Forum / Forum iuris communis Europae" no. 1 / 2003, pp. 1-4). The European institutions was a new position: the "lawyer-linguist", ie the carrying out official translations of legal documents or court in the different official languages of the European Union (the sum of the official languages of the Member States).

I think it is important to note that the nomenclature emphasizes legal specialization ("Lawyer") and only secondarily on the philological ("linguist") [51,p.87]

Because a correct translation of a legal text must consider equivalence legal institutions involved in the legal text. In the media after the 2008 economic crisis often read about "prescription" or "prescription" of mortgages in the United States. A correct translation would be "execution (forced) mortgages," but to reach this translation is necessary to understand the operation mechanism "mortgage" ("Mortgage") of the common law. Related legal figure in our law could be redemption pact sale (in the absence of "dead gage" which was eradicated from continental civil code regulation Napoleon). The lender becomes the owner of the mortgaged property (he has only a "legal title", but we will not complicate this explanation) under the condition to terminate the payment (full) price debtor (who has only "equitable title"). The debtor's right to "redeem" the property mortgaged debt is right, he can "prescribe" extinction if not paid amounts due, as the debtor will no longer have the right to claim transfer of title of the property from the lender ( reinforces their ownership).

This happens when the lender goes to enforcement of the property [31,p.47].
Another area of interference occurs in the process of drafting regulations. In the past 20 years, a significant number of Romanian laws have had inspiration from foreign regulations. If used as a model when the act was one derived from the French law, the difficulties were mitigated by the 150 years of "integration" of the French Civil Code concepts (with frequent Calculations language) Romanian law. When the source text was written in English legislation, however, things got interesting. I do not want to return to the original shape of the draft law on the legal regime pledged (later Title VI of Law. 99/1999) because I will be accused of monomania. I'll give another example. This was naturalized (all languages by calculation by transforming in a noun adjective "principal") the term "principal" to refer to the capital of a loan. Some slippage initial translation in the translation of European directives were subsequently corrected and therefore no collateral call today the term "guaranteed interest" (verbatim translation of the English "security interest")[47,p.67-68].
Here's how the boundary between translator and glossist becomes extremely thin and who wants only to facilitate access to the contents of a text becomes co-author of a new text (a "derivative work"). Perhaps law Traduttore famous expression, traditore reveals more poignancy.

The notion of "competence" is defined as "one's ability to rule on something, on the basis of a deep knowledge of the issue in question…".

To determine the meaning of "competence of a translator" is needed scoring the next point: the translator processes the text. Just like any participant in the act of communication, he must possess certain knowledge and skills of communicating their all, or – the translation is a special, which takes place in at least two different languages.
Plausible list of skills suggested by Johnson and Whitelock is:
"… Professional translator (which translates specialized texts) requires knowledge of:
– The target language (LD)
– Type of text,
– The source language (SL)
– The translation of which the subject (knowledge of the "real world"),
– The comparison … ".
It is undeniable that a professional translator must also know:
• structuring statements (semantic concepts);
• synthesize and analyze utterances to convey a message (notions of syntax);
• to achieve a text with sentences (pragmatic notions).

Failure to comply with specified requirements lead to inconsistency translated text. Without the first two translators could not understand the meaning of words and text without the last requirement would reduce the semantic meaning of utterances given that, although formal cohesive may not be functionally coherent.

In Linguistics and Natural Language Processing V. Raskin said: "Given that linguistic translation aims to achieve a power equal to that of native speakers, translation theory from the perspective of applied linguistics should pursue with the translator's competence equalizer that has bilingual native speaker".
Some linguistic competence-performance dichotomy accept, others reject.

Grammatical competence which involves knowing the language code of rules of word formation, spelling / writing and structuring of sentences;
February [50,p.76].

Sociolinguistic competence, which involves the necessary skills and ability to use and understand utterances in context, to perceive their actual meaning, given the subject. Competence speech which has the bility to combine form and meaning to obtain written or oral texts of different genres, with a unitary character.

Unit literal meaning or the meaning resulting from the social context must be given cohesion and coherence; April. Strategic competence, which meets knowledge and use of communication strategies with the purpose to improve communication.

The primary role in this case it is "strategic competence", or a translator is distinguished by a "strategic competence" special [50,p.109].

Looking at this issue from another perspective, it can be inferred that a budding translator should be cut in the field to refine (field, in this case would be based on its strategic competence) by extending the jurisdiction of the other three areas.Unfolding studies translator / interpreter at the University of Vienna is a good example in terms of the harmonious combination of the four major skills.

CONCLUSION

This thesis has been elaborated based on several studies of books, magazines, articles and dictionaries. Research was done on both analytic and descriptive methods. The thesis is based on the structure of synonyms in legal texts including the shape, origin and provenance. Our propose was to take in consideration carefully the form and structure of the synonyms, in both lexical and grammatical contexts. The concept of synonyms was integrally performed, revealing an ample explanation and complex information. Referring to legal chapter we took into consideration legal texts, namely their structure, form and content in various contexts. It drew attention to the implication in legal texts of the synonyms of any origin and their translation. The difference was clearly visible in the examples presented ample especially chapter three which were chosen different legal concepts and integrated into complex examples. Giving then their translation involved maximum attention of the specific terminology and the many diverse sense that it implies.

Terminology involved a complex number of meanings that’s way for the word abuse we found 6 synonyms 2 different meanings in combination.

For the word act – 7 synonyms and 14 meanings in combination; the word action- 8 synonyms and 16 different meanings. Also we took the word agreement where there are 8 synonyms and 14 meanings. For the word assignment there are 6 synonyms and 9 meanings; case- 6 synonyms and 13 meanings, charge- 5 synonyms and 14 meanings; conveyance- 3 synonyms and 7different meanings; claim – 10 synonyms and 17 meanings; deed- 4 synonyms and 17 meanings; estate- 5 synonyms and 20 meanings.

For the word right took another paragraph because it is one of the most popular word in juridical terms. Here mentioned the example with each meaning and translated it intro Romanian for understanding the difference while transforming and replacing the synonyms in the texts. The word right has 18 meanings in different contexts and with different combinations and is to be found in contexts with 4 synonyms, and even more. Totally we deeply analyzed 13 terms in different contexts and gave their translation into Romanian.

Considering the fact that no dictionary exposes examples and concepts that can make a difference of meaning, the thesis includes a lot of examples where sentences highlighted this logic transformation in the process of changing words or combinations of words. We have many examples of legal basis of the involvement of law making these examples truthfulness.

We also took into consideration the lexical aspects of synonyms, trying to make them unchangeable in expressions or meanings in the sentences.

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