Adverb Phrase In English

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INTRODUCTION

The new role of foreign languages is closely connected to the development of society itself. Many years ago people may have needed to speak foreign languages for educational purposes, for special reasons or for travelling. Today we live in a "globalizad" world that is completely different from what it used to be.

Firstly, in the modern world one cannot function efficiently without knowledge of computers or, at least, one foreign language. When sitting for a scholarship or applying for a job, English is generally among the basic requirements.Students need to integrate on the labour market, they need to adapt themselves to its imperatives. Apart from being well-prepared, well-instructed or well-educated in school these involve not only teamwork and creativity but also foreign communication skills. As a matter of fact, learning a foreign language also represents, beyond the advantages that I have mentioned above, a way to facilitate the development of students' learning skills and to improve communication competence in general.

Secondly, an important aspect of the educational process regarding the adverb phrase resides not only in students' capability of using language but also in their ability to use it practically rather than theoretically. I strongly sustain that learning a foreign language, especially English, should be seen as part of a permanent learning process or lifelong learning process. Formal learning is not enough anymore. This must be doubled by the informal counterpart. Lifelong learning suppose learning to learn, not just learning. Students should not limit their study and use of knowledge in schools. Instead, they should expand their linguistic competence according to their priorities, needs and circumstances.

Furthermore, The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages considers learning foreign languages as a necessary need in nowadays society. It presents what language learners must learn in order to develop knowledge and skills they need to communicate effectively. The description also defines the new role of foreign languages within the educational system, such as interpreting and understanding of the new values through language. Concerning this matter, teaching the adverb phrase becomes organicallly linked to testing, that is why changes in teaching are soon followed by changing in testing strategies. In my opinion, teachers need to test those skills that allow students to manage the language no matter the situation. I am not talking about students just acquiring English knowledge but using it, showing what they can do with the help of language, being able to perform practical tasks in situations that simulate real-life and not only, exchanging ideas and negotiating meaning.

To sum up these ideas, students need to know how to use language communicatively. Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that lays stress on interaction encouraging students to take advantage of their own personal experience during the learning process and their personal goals. Also, students can become better language learners when they feel responsible for what they are learning. For example, self-assessment encourages students to become independent learners and increase their motivation. So, students need to be shown strategies for self-monitoring and self-assessment regarding adverb phrase. Communicative teaching requires communicative testing, too.

All things considered, assessment claims for new needs of developmet due to the current change within the Romanian educational system. My teaching experience consolidated my conviction related to the necessity of approaching this subject. A fair evaluation, as objective as possible, gives students the opportunity to reach self-knowledge, self-worthing and social integration. The role of English in human society has made educators devise new ways of teaching and assessing so that their results match the students' needs. The objective of evaluation is to highlight attitudes and skills that show the efficiency of the educational process.

CHAPTER I. ARGUMENTS OR SUSTAINED ATTACHMENTS ON ADVERBIAL PHRASE

1.1 Introductory aspects. Grammar dimensions.

The terms sentence and clause are very often mentioned in nowadays grammars. However, the level of definition of these terms, their identification with specific grammatical units and the classification of these vary considerably not only from one author to another, but within the work of a single theorizer. The reason should not be sought, in our opinion, more than in the lack of rigor regarding the application of labels. However, this is not just a terminological issue, but a major theoretical problem lies behind: the lack of clear criteria and applied at all times when constructing a linguistic theory. Thus, criteria that are valid for its application to the classification of certain units are not applicable for other ones. All this terminological confusion is perceived in certain key authors of the English linguistics of our century. Although sentence and clause are very used terms, almost essential, in the Anglo-Saxon grammars, they do not seem to have much importance in themselves, because often they are forming part of compounds, modified by another term that seems to carry the weight of the full term significance.

Thus, in "adverbial clause", for example, what really matters is "adeverbial" and much less "clause". In Crystal (1985: 49) the definition of the term "clause" refers only to some grammatical models and defines it as a unit halfway between sentences. It does not seem a rigorous definition because it would be necessary to collect in a more broadly and more strictly manner, according to different criteria, what type of unit is this one that one only know belongs to the field of the grammatical organization of languages ​​and that is situated in somewhere between the report unit and the sentence unit because of its size: "smaller than the sentence, but larger than phrases, words or morphemes." (Crystal, 1985: 49)

Much more complete is the entry corresponding to "sentence", perhaps because it is a term much more traditionally used and defined in relation to Logic. In this case, Crystal (1985) offers a range of definitions of "sentence" ranging from the most traditional grammar to mention the doubts that exist at the moment regarding the problem of the sentence limit in the spoken chain. It focuses, in any case, on the importance of Bloomfield's conception (of which it leaves practically all of the considerations in this regard) of the structural independence of the sentence as a linguistic form that is not included, by virtue of any grammatical construction , in another major linguistic unit. It also alludes to the fact that certain linguists have spoken of types of report and have classified them, from a semantic point of view, in declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and imperative. Then one would stop at the most significant theoretical approaches beginning with the approach of Jespersen to continue with other equally representative authors.

1.2 Jespersen’s view

The boundaries between clause and sentence are extremely diffuse in Jespersen’s opinion just as they will be in later authors. All his grammatical theory is based on his idea of ​​the "three ranks". From the establishment of these three ranges arise fundamental concepts such as "nexus", "clause" and "subordination". Mainly, it does not seem that clause and sentence are very different units for Jespersen, since in A Modem English Grammar on Historical Principles the term "sentence" is often used to refer to what for other authors (Red, 1989) would be clauses. In turn, the clause is defined as the member part of a sentence that has, itself, the form of a sentence. This clause performs a function within the sentence, either as "main" (subject or object of the sentence) or as "adjunct". It is important to emphasize that, in relation to the theory of the three ranges, there is a series of independent or "primary" elements and others that are dependent or subordinate (the "secondary" and the "tertiary"). In this respect, all these primary, secondary or tertiary elements can be constituted by any type of unit (from the morpheme to the clause) and mark the starting point for the further classification of clauses, nexus and sentences. In this respect, one only speaks of "subordination" when, for example, a clause acts as secondary or tertiary (that is, performing any function within the sentence except those of Subject and Object). Here, Jespersen's conception is entirely different from that of other authors who consider that any clause that performs a function within a sentence as an immediate constituent of it is, necessarily, a subordinate clause.

1.3 Background notion assessment

The adverbial subordination has been a controversial subject given the different opinions that were found in the bibliography. In this regard, from the traditional grammar to the most recent ones, there has been a disagreement with respect to analyzes that have been done on this class of sentences, at the moment of underlining the fundamental problems that this type of subordination presents. Therefore, this chapter deals with a recount of what the grammar proposed about adverbial subordinate clauses.

Traditionally, subordinate sentences were classified into three major classes: substantive, adjectival and adverbial since they fulfil the same roles that such elements play within the sentence in which they are found, which showed a predominant functional approach. This perception has been questioned, and however, it is questionable whether a classification according to the functions of the subordinates is the most appropriate or if they have presented ways of grouping and studying the three subordination classes, but in a different manner from the one proposed by the traditional grammar or rather, it is still considered the most accurate one that has been.

In the first section, one will start from what the traditional grammar reflected about it and one will continue with what the most recent grammars appreciated in order to take a position on adverbial subordination and justify the way in which constructions will be analyzed in this work. Since the present study will be focused on the adverbial subordinate sentences of time and place, in the second section, the problems that have arisen around this type of subordination will be discussed, which have to do with the overlap they present with the Relative sentences, particularly relative ones. One will also talk about an element that is somewhat controversial, one refers to the antecedent, one will show if it is possible that this class of sentences could have an element that precedes them and what their characteristics would be. In the third section, one will see if the adverbial subordinate sentences are argumentative or adjunct and finally, in section four, one will analyze the different classifications of the links that they introduce to our own subordinates and one will propose an own grouping.

When making a revision of traditional and contemporary grammars, at first glance one could conclude that the most studied subordinate clauses have been the substantive and relative ones, because the former occupy a plot position and the latter allude to an antecedent within the sentence in; however, what little they found in relation to the adverbial subordinates can be due to two reasons:

(1) because they are considered tertiary elements within a sentence (Cook, 1988: 979), respectively they are adjuncts or

(2) because very recently some of these sentences have been considered part of the subordinates of relative (Chomsky, 1988; Huddleston, 1984; Royal English Academy, 2009; Lohndal, 2017). One refers specifically to the adverbials of time, place and mode, since conditional, concessional, final, causal one presents another type of issues that one will briefly address in a later section.

In order to understand the questions that arise around this type of sentences, it is important to review what has been studied regarding them, from the traditional grammar until now, and analyze how the place where said clauses have been modified has changed. They occupy within the English grammar. Wray (2005: 731) rightly points out that traditional grammar classified subordinate sentences according to the aspect they fulfiled within the sentence in which they were found and for their equivalence with "the syntagmas headed by the basic word classes." So a substantive subordinate clause was one that fulfiled the functions of a noun, an adjective subordinate clause carried out the tasks of an adjective, modifying a name, and the adverbial subordinates performed the trades of adverbs, modifying a verb. Wray (2005) warn, however, that this classification is not completely reliable and that it is somewhat forced. They take this position because they find that in the three types of subordination there are contradictions.

For example, they emphasize that adjectival subordinates can modify a noun but can not fulfil the function of attributive. In the case of substantive subordinate clauses, there are some verbs such as “believing” and “saying” that they only accept substantive subordinate clauses, which can not be substituted by a noun, which implies that there is no correspondence between them and that type of word. With respect to the adverbial subordinate clauses, Wray shows that they also present important questions. This class of subordinates is divided into two classes which bear a great resemblance to the relative ones without an antecedent expression, and the improper ones, which do not have adverbial equivalents. These linguists explain that only adverbial subordinates of their own can be replaced by an adverb, but improper ones do not, which contradicts in a certain way the name given to them: adverbial subordinates. What is exposed by Wray (2005) allows us to distinguish in a very general way at least three fundamental questions presented by adverbial subordinate sentences:

(1) that they were considered adverbial because of the function they fulfil within the sentence in which they find each other;

(2) not all types of adverbial subordinates can be replaced by adverbs and

(3) they overlap with subordinate adjective or relative clauses since they are introduced by the same elements.

Next one will analyze the first two questions, one will see, in addition, what the different grammars considered about the functions that adverbial subordinates fulfil and the classification that each author proposes, which is related to the substitution of such propositions with an adverbial syntagma.

1.4 Traditional grammar in the context of adverbial phrase

Attending to the studies of traditional grammar, Ball (1958: 121, 122) shows that verbs take different complements, one of them is adverbial and the words used for this function are adverbs or a "translated" noun, so generally it is preceded by a preposition. However, he considers that this function can also be carried out by an adverbial proposition introduced by conjunctions and distinguishes fifteen types of adverbial propositions:

1. Place: This man is always where he should not.

2. Time: One will go when it seems to us.

3. Parallelism: One learn as one walk.

4. Contrast: While I never fail, she comes half of the days.

5. Mode: One does the task as one can.

6. Intensity: He has tried everything he could.

7. Comparison: As surprised as you are.

8. Cause: One is happy because three days of holiday are coming.

9. Purpose: Come to see your grandparents.

10. Consequence: He made such an effort that he fell exhausted.

11. Condition: If time does not prevent it, there will be a bullfight.

12. Restriction: Here, as far as I know, nothing has happened.

13. Concession: The result is very doubtful, no matter how hard one try.

14. Exception: There is nothing new, except that (or else, apart from that) a man has called.

15. Addition: They are paid well, apart from the fact that they do not have a better schedule.

The definition that Ball (1958) provides of the adverbial subordinate clauses is that which replaces an adverb of the main clause or modifies the verb of the main clause in the same way as an adverb would. It divides this class of sentences into three groups, the first includes reports of a circumstantial nature, respectively "those that express the three fundamental relationships of space, time and mode in the main sentence" (Ball, 1958). Another group includes sentences that express quantitative relationships and includes comparative and consecutive sentences. The third group consists of conditional and concessional sentences. In relation to the adverbial sentences that express the place, time and space of the main sentence, Ball (1958) emphasizes two important aspects:

(1) when such relations are so complicated that they can not be issued by a morphological adverb, it is used an adverbial subordinate clause to express them and

(2) structurally, the adverbial subordinates of time, mode and space have a uniform arrangement and they are generally introduced by the relative adverbs when, as and where respectively, however, it clarifies that sentences do not always conform to the schematic models proposed strictly.

This author also considers that adverbial subordinate clauses fulfil the function of an adverb but unlike Ball (1958), separates subordinate clauses by class. He also proposes that the structure of the adverbial subordinates is diverse, which is fundamental since the data analyzed so far prove that the structure of the adverbial subordinates is diverse and that it is not invariable as would be expected.

In the same manner, White (1990: 389-392) points out that the classification of subordinate sentences in general is a problematic one. This author appreciate that traditionally there are three types of subordinate propositions: substantive, adjective and adverbial, then one quote examples of White (1990):

1) What you say is not enough. (noun with subject function)

2) Students who were attentive understood the explanation. (adjective)

3) I will live where you want. (adverbial)

Considering that substantive sentences fulfil the function of a noun within the sentence, either as a subject or direct object, but they can also fulfil the function of circumstantial complement, which is why they have been classified as adverbial, adjectives are usually identified with relative clauses. The idea given by White in relation to nominal subordinate clauses that can fulfil the functions of circumstantial complement, shows that the border that divides some sentences from others was, and perhaps still is, very imprecise, which is why one considered that subordinate clauses could move from one class to another according to the functions they fulfilled within the sentence. Chomsky (1988) explains that this type of analysis generated confusion and from there arise the overlapping problems that subordinates have, which highlights the importance of having a more adequate study on the behaviour of each subordinate report class.

Likewise, White (1990: 389-392) glimpsed that the parallelism that exists between adverbial sentences and adverbs is incomplete, in the sense that it is not always possible to compare them with different types of adverbs, respectively a subordinate clause. It can not be replaced by an adverb in all cases. Therefore, the possibility of substitution is only feasible with the adverbial sentences of time, manner and place, but it is not feasible for concessional, conditional, final and causal sentences. For White, the adverbial propositions present other important problems, citing the following example: I will stay where I can work, in which an adverb is presented as an individual word, but there is also a subordinate sentence. Or it shows that there are sentences in which the same adverb needs a complement: He worked as much as he could. It is noted that this author perceives two of the problems that have been discussed so much about subordinate adverbial sentences, which were mentioned before: not all adverbial subordinates can be replaced by an adverb and its syntactic structure is a function of the role it fulfils within the main report. In this regard, it has been asked whether the sentence adjacent to an adverbial phrase can be considered adverbial or is rather an adverbialized nominal (Chomsky, 1988) or perhaps it could be considered as an adverbial sentence that can modify another adverb, considering that such propositions fulfil the functions of any adverb. However, one will leave this question for the time being, since it will be further elaborated on in the following chapters. Considering what White proposes, this linguist distinguishes two groups of adverbial sentences:

a) clauses that can be compared with adverbs because they express the same ideas.

b) clauses that are not in this circumstance.

According to the classification it provides, one considers that the denomination of adverbial sentences applies more to the first group than to the second one, given its characteristics. White divides the sentences of the first group into three classes, namely, local, temporal, modal; and separates those of the second group into six classes: comparative, final, causal, consecutive, concessional and conditional.

On the other hand, Foley (2009) mentions that subordinate adverbial sentences fulfil the same role that corresponds to an adverb, therefore they can modify qualitatively or quantitatively the main one. It also indicates that the modifier function of the verb can be expressed by means of an adverb, an adverbial phrase, a circumstantial complement or a subordinate sentence if the modification is very complex. This author notes that subordinate adverbial sentences are often confused with nominal subordinate clauses that fulfil the function of circumstantial complement of the verb as indicated by White (1990). However, the difference that Foley (2009) states is that adverbial subordinate sentences affect not only the verb, but the entire main sentence. The classification that this author presents is based on the one that Ball (1958) elaborated in his work:

a) Reports of a circumstantial nature: those that express the three fundamental relationships of space, time and mode.

b) Subordinate sentences that express quantitative relationships and correspond to the adverbs of quantity and comparison.

c) Causal relationship sentences. They are linked to the main one by means of conjunctions and conjunctive phrases.

On the other hand, Cook (1988: 979) also alludes to the three classes of subordinate sentences in English, point out that "subordinate sentences, following the formal criteria adopted in their definition, were classified as substantive, adjectival, and adverbial, names taken from Morphology, but they must be understood functionally as covering element in primary (substantive), secondary (adjectives) or tertiary (adverbial) function".

These authors distinguish three classes of adverbial subordinate clauses (Cook, 1988: 1058, 1128): manners introduced by as, comparative, conditional introduced by itself.

As shown, the classification that Cook (1988) make of this class of sentences is sketchy, perhaps for the reason that they themselves expose in the sense that adverbial sentences are tertiary or adjunct elements, however, they devote a large part of their analysis of sentences subordinate to the substantive and relative ones introduced by different connectors as they are primary and secondary elements. Like Cook, Chomsky (2014) does not make a broad classification of this class of sentences.

Greenbaum (1980: 354, 355) agrees with the definition that the aforementioned authors have stated, adverbial sentences fulfil the functions of an adverb, that is, those of circumstantial, modifying or adjacent sentence complement. This linguist classifies the adverbial subordinate clauses together with the nominal ones that fulfil the functions of circumstantial considering essentially the internal syntactic characteristics of the latter, an idea that he shares with White (1990), Foley (2009) and Ball (1958). From this point of view, one distinguishes six classes. However, taking into account its semantic features, one groups them into temporal, locative, modal, causal, final, concessional and conditional sentences. He notes that comparative and consecutive sentences should not be included within this classification, so he places them in a different class.

Now, considering the semantic characteristics of these clauses, Greenbaum (1980: 357-364) distinguishes two classes within this group, their own and the improper ones. Their own are those that can be replaced by an adverb. In this group are temporary, locative and manners. The following examples taken from Greenbaum (1980) illustrate this class of sentences and the way in which they are replaced by an adverb:

a. I did it when you told me. a'. I did it then.

b. He put the painting where there was more light. b '. He put the painting there.

c. Treat it as it deserves. c '. Treat it like this.

The improper ones are those that have no adverbial substitute and in this grouping are the causal, final, concessional, and conditional sentences. However, Greenbaum (1980) finds a solution to the lack of adverbial substitutes for sentences with causal, final and conditional sense. He mentions that there are adverbial nominal groups that can replace them. Here are some examples that it provides:

a. I will do it because it suits me. a'. I will do it for my convenience.

b. I'm going to calm down. b '. I'm going for my peace of mind.

c. If I succeeded, I would be happy. c '. In case of success, I would be glad.

d. Even if he is tired, he should not give up. d '. With all this fatigue, he should not give up.

This substitution corroborates that not all adverbial sentences have an adverb that can supply them. The classification and description that the mentioned authors made about the adverbial subordinate sentences show that as indicated by Wray (2005: 731) the traditional grammar classified subordinate adverbial sentences according to the role they fulfilled within the sentence, it could be noticed. In addition, the aforementioned authors distinguished the problems presented by the adverbial subordination and also pointed out the possible solutions to these difficulties. Some of these points have been resolved, but despite this, some issues still prevail in the most recent grammars, as will be seen in the next section.

1.5 Contemporary or descriptive grammar regarding the adverbial phrase

Taking as a starting point what traditional grammar exposes in relation to adverbial subordinate clauses, Quirk and Greenbaum (1973) define adverbial subordination as sentences that fulfil the functions of an adverb, which is why they are also called circumstantial. They establish that such constructions express the different types of conditions or circumstances in which the main action of the verb is performed. Their classification starts from the type of circumstance they express. These authors distinguish nine classes: temporary, modal, comparative, consecutive, causal, final, conditional and concessional. One cites examples of these authors below:

a. I wait for you where you already know. (Locative)

b. As soon as dawn broke, Mr. Black went to check the stables. (Temporary)

c. He cried as if they were going to kill him. (Modal)

d. My ration is smaller than yours. (Comparative)

e. The proposal of the company caused distrust, therefore, at the last minute did not sign the contract. (Consecutive)

f. If you do not have money, you can not pay the bill. (Conditional)

g. Do not play with me because I always win. (Causal)

h. He went to Canada to participate in the congress on literary theory. (Final)

i. Although I swore to him several times, he did not believe me. (Concessive)

Now, Givón (2014: 231) warns that just as adverbs constitute one of the "weakest flanks of traditional grammar" due to their diverse character in the semantic aspect, adverbial clauses also present some questions due to their structure and the semantic categories that are involved. It indicates that unlike substantive and relative sentences, adverbials have a looser relationship with "superordinate" ones. As the authors mentioned above have mentioned, Givón states that substantive sentences are argumentative and relative ones modify an antecedent. This author indicates that some adverbials are required by the verbs themselves, for example, the locative ones. In addition, it emphasizes that they are generally negatively characterized, so, they are not argumentative nor are they all included as modifiers of an antecedent, they function as adjuncts in some of the levels (of the verb, of the predicate or of the whole clause). The classification that the author does is of three classes:

1. adverbial: are those that can be replaced by an adverb of the same semantic class.

2. improper adverbials: they work as adjuncts of a verb, although it is more frequent that they modify the entire clause, either at the extraclausular attachment level or as a disjunction or mode modifier.

3. comparative and consecutive: these clauses work as a complement to a quantitative element, respectively, a lexical category.

Like traditional grammar, the panorama of subordinate sentences remains the same, they fulfil the functions of an adverb and not all classes can be replaced by that type of word. It is appreciated that these authors distinguish two classes of subordinates mainly: their own and improper.

Thompson (2013) places the adverbial clauses inside the complements and modifiers of the verb. He appreciates that it was traditionally considered that adverbs and constructions linked to them modified the verb, however, it shows that there are adverbial adverbs and sentences that modify the whole phrase. In this regard, one distinguishes two classes of adverbial sentences, those that modify only the verb and those that modify the whole sentence. Unlike the grammars that have been commented so far, this author only refers to the subordinate adverbial conditional, causal, concessional and modal clauses, which according to her are considered adverbial although they do not amount to any type of adverb or SSPP that can not be switched by these categories. This author leaves out of his study the subordinates of time and place, respectively the so-called adverbial subordinate clauses because he considers that they are relational clauses such as Huddleston (1984) and Lohndal (2017) point out in their investigations; however, this linguist does not provide any example of the behaviour of such sentences as free relative. His analysis focuses on the improper adverbs mentioned above, conditional, final and causal, except for the manners that other linguists have grouped within their own.

Although this author does not consider in his analysis the subordinate sentences that one will study in this work, the contributions he provides to the study of the examined compound sentences can be applied to all types of adverbial sentences since, as he recognizes, compound sentence "has been the subject of various studies, although in general it has not been given the attention it deserves until very recently" (Thompson, 2013: 285). One refers in particular to the subordinates that affect the clause in its entirety "because they are external to the nuclear predicative relation, they have been usually called peripheral adverbials or enunciation in front of the SV or nuclear modifiers" (Thompson, 2013: 285).

For Han (2015) the classification of subordinate sentences is based on a functional criterion, which contrasts with the categorical classification of the syntactic groups, nominal, adjectival and adverbial ones. The classification of subordinate sentences that Han (2015) mentions is based on the grammatical tradition, that is, in three classes: nominal, adjective or relative and adverbial or circumstantial. This grammar denominates the nominal sentences as argumentative as they constitute arguments of some predicate. He also points out that there may be some exceptions regarding the relative clauses. According to this opinion, the most controversial group is made up of adverbial subordinate clauses, while the grammars point that consider them as units of syntactic analysis are rare. Even in this work, the term adverbial subordinate sentence is used in a very restricted way (Han, 2015: 76). One also distinguishes the main problems that adverbial subordination traditionally presents:

1. The parallelism with the adverbs on which it is based is inaccurate and may be forced.

2. The class of adverbials gives rise to certain overlaps with other types of sentences.

3. It is related to the structure of this type of sentences

Regarding point one, the Han (2015: 3293) states that not all adverbial subordinates can be replaced by an adverb, only the subordinates of time, place and mode have a corresponding adverb, but the causal, final, concessive and final not they got it. The second point has to do with the overlap that the adverbial subordinate sentences themselves, time, place and mode, have with the relative subordinate clauses, since they are introduced by the same adverbial relative pronouns, when, where and how. This grammar considers that the adverbial subordinate clauses traditionally grouped themselves as adverbial subordinates, which highlighted the problem of delimitation between these two classes. But it considers that the adverbial subordinates themselves must be classified as free relative and not as part of the adverbial subordinate clauses (Han, 2015: 418) because it maintains that as the relative clauses do, the subordinate clauses themselves have an antecedent that precedes them, but unlike the relative, the antecedent of this class of subordinates is silent. And finally, point three is related to the syntactic structure of adverbial subordinate clauses, which is diverse. Next, one will see what typological grammar appreciated about adverbial subordination.

1.6 The typological grammar appreciated in the context of adverbial subordination

From the perspective of typological grammar, Thompson and Longacre (2007) show that just as an adverb, which is an individual word, can modify a verb, adverbial sentences can be labelled and categorized in the same way to fulfil the same functions of an adverb. Languages ​​have mechanisms for one sentence to modify the other, just as an adverb modifies a phrase. For Thompson and Longacre (2007) the relationship of the subordinate sentence and the main one is a continuum, and within this continuum, the subordinates are clauses that depend on another clause or some element of it. They consider three classes of subordinates:

Those that work as a nominal phrase. These are called complementary ones.

Those that work as modifiers of nouns, called relative clauses.

Those that modify a verbal phrase or the complete clause, these are the adverbial clauses.

Thompson and Longacre (2007) point out that the complementary and relative clauses have an embedded structure to the subordinate clause, either because they are inside another clause or because they are within a nominal phrase. But the adverbials are in combination with the main clause, so they are related to the main clause in its entirety. The authors even considers that adverbials are less dependent than the other two types of subordinate clauses. These linguists show that languages ​​use different instruments to form a subordinate clause:

1) By means of subordinate morphemes:

a. grammatical morphemes without lexical meaning

b. grammatical morphemes with lexical content

2) By means of special verbal forms

3) In word order

They also distinguish two classes of adverbial clauses as well as traditional grammar:

A. Those that can be replaced by an adverb. Here are those of time, place and mode.

B. Those who do not have an adverb to replace them. Here they include those of purpose, reason, circumstance, simultaneity, conditional, concessional, substitute, additive and absolute.

These authors make a brief exploration of the first class and, like traditional grammar, devote most of their analysis to clauses that do not have an adverb as a substitute. Although they consider that a clause can be replaced by an adverb, they do not suggest that adverbial clauses occur in the same place as an adverb and vice versa. Rather they indicate that the semantic relationship that exists between an adverbial clause and the main clause is the same as between an adverb and the main clause. This implies that a complete clause or a single adverb can express the relation of time, place and mode. Just as traditional grammar points out, they indicate that adverbial clauses tend to overlap with relative clauses since they have similar characteristics. However, such similarities only occur with adverbial subordinates that can be replaced by an adverb, namely, time, place and mode, but with those that indicate cause, reason or condition there is no such overlap.

Diessel (2001) defines adverbial clauses as those that comprise a wide variety of constructions, distinguishing two large classes:

(1) the finite and

(2) the non-finite (for example, the participles and infinitives, and some types of clauses).

He also points out that the adverbial clauses must be differentiated from the other two groups of subordinates, and also from the coordinated ones, since the characteristics of complex adverbial sentences are different from the nominal subordinates and the adjectives. It considers that the adverbial subordinate clauses are adjuncts since they function as adverbs or sentence modifiers, therefore, they are non-obligatory elements that can always be omitted, however, following Wray (2005) as it happens with the circumstantial supplements, not in all cases there may be such omission, therefore there may be cases in which even subordinate sentences can not be omitted. Another difference that distinguishes them from the other two classes is that adverbials are introduced by adverbial nexuses which indicate the semantic relationship between the main clause and the subordinate clause; in addition they can modify the associated clause or only the verbal phrase.

Regarding what has been said in relation to adverbial subordinate clauses, all the authors mentioned agree that subordinate clauses fulfil the functions of an adverb; however, the idea that transmits a subordinate clause is not always comparable with the one that communicates an adverb. They agree that they are divided into two classes, namely, those that can be replaced by an adverb and those that can not be replaced by this element. They agree that they present important problems of syntactic structure (White, 1990), of overlapping with other sentences (Greenbaum, 1980; Han, 2015), and that they are non-argumentative adjuncts (Cook, 1988; Givón, 2014).

The interest to study this class of sentences, particularly the own adverbial subordinates, is based on all these remarkable contributions. One believes that traditional analysis, from a functional perspective, has been the most prevalent. While I recognize that it presents some problems, I think it is the most appropriate because one considers that the functions of subordinate sentences, not only in the adverbials, but in the three types, determine which class they belong to.

Adverbial subordinate clauses. When studying the adverbial subordination, different questions were found that require study. While all adverbial subordinate sentences are worthy of analysis, this work focuses on the first class in which they are divided, namely, subordinate sentences of their own; which in turn are grouped into three classes: time, place and mode, and also can be replaced by an adverbial phrase. However, one will only study two classes, temporary and locative ones.

It was mentioned in the previous sections that not all subordinate sentences can be replaced by an adverb, which contradicts in a certain way the name they carry, specifically the type of impropies that as one saw do not have a correspondence with an adverbial phrase, since the English does not have adverbs that cover the semantic aspects of such sentences, that is, there are no causal, concessional, final, conditional adverbs, etc., although they fulfil the function of adverbial or circumstantial subordination as the name implies. On the other hand, the sentences that can be replaced by adverbial phrases, respectively the own subordinates, present interesting questions in which one want to address, although they fulfil the function of being adverbial of time, place and manner, they also present a problem that has been controversial for several years. One refers to the overlap they have with subordinate clauses adjectives or relative, even this problem has led to several linguists (Lohndal, 2017; Chomsky, 1988; Han, 2015) no longer analyzed as adverbial subordinates, rather placed within the relative since they are introduced by relative adverbs, even if they have been labelled with the name of "relative free", qualifier that designates the relative sentences without precedent.

Although apparently the subordinate sentences of time, manner and place have features in common with the relative ones, as one will explain throughout this section, it is clear that in the functional and semantic aspect they are different, so that in the following sections one will explain why that adverbial subordinate clauses have been classified within subordinate clauses of relative, or more specifically as free relative ones; one will discuss what different authors have said about it and justify the position that will be taken throughout the work. It will also be discussed that they are considered as adjuncts although this position also presents small difficulties, given that there are some circumstantial arguments that can be considered as required by the verbs, according to Wray (2005). Finally, one will analyze the different classifications that have been made and one will propose an own grouping.

1.7 Free relatives or adverbial subordinate clauses.

The main reason why the adverbial subordinate sentences of time, place and mode are considered part of the relative ones is because they are introduced by the relative adverbs when, where and as, they introduce the subordinate clauses of relative or adjectives. However, the syntactic structure of both types of sentences is different, for this reason, one considers that they can not be grouped within the same class since their syntactic and semantic functions are different. To begin, there will be given a brief description of the subordinate clauses of relative, one will mention why some authors have proposed that these two classes of sentences should be grouped together and later it will be explained why one consider that the adverbial subordinate clauses should be classified as a different type of sentences from relative.

The definition that the different grammars provide about relative sentences is introduced by a pronoun, an adjective, a determinant or a relative adverb (Chomsky,1988, Huddleston, 1984; Han, 2015). Among the functions they fulfil is that they modify "an element called 'antecedent' that can be a noun, a nominal group or a nominal phrase" (Huddleston, 1984: 397; Han, 2015: 3292). Regarding its structure, the main characteristic they have is that they are always headed by a subordinating connection, which according to Chomsky (1988: 11), having the double mission of being, on the one hand, integral to the sentence in which it is found and on the other hand, it serves as a connection with the main report. Huddleston (1984: 397) mentions that the connection is anaphorically linked to the antecedent, so that it can act as an argument or an adjunct within the subordinate clause. Han (2015) points out that the pronouns that lead to this class of sentences are the relative ones: that, who, how much; the forms of the relative which like which; how many; or whose; and the relative adverbs when, where and how. Thus, considering the features that the relative sentences have, it is remarkable that they share with the subordinate adverbial sentences the nexus that unites them, however, the function they fulfil is different.

One should look at the following sentences that exemplify the overlap of relative and adverbial subordination:

A. a. I just sent the letter where I wrote my disagreement.

b. On September 19, when the earthquake occurred, I was having a leisurely breakfast at home.

B. a. I'll wait for you where you are.

b. They arrived when one left

These sentences show that the relative adverbs where and when introduce the relative subordinates of (A) I wrote my disagreement, the earthquake occurred, which are modifying the noun phrase that precedes them, the letter and September, 19 respectively. But in (B) they enter the sentences one left and you left. In the four cases the sentences are introduced by a relative adverb, the Han (2015) warns that traditionally the relative where, when and how have raised problems of delimitation between the adjective and adverbial subordination since they are introduced by the same elements. Ariel (2014: 178) agrees with this idea and points out that the basic nexuses of adverbial sentences are those already mentioned and also share them not only with the subordinates of relative but also with a class of substantive subordinates. Likewise, Chomsky (1988: 14) indicates that when relative clauses are spoken, they are usually considered as those whose introductory link belongs to the pronominal group, "classifying then as adverbial subordinates (of place, of time or of mode) the which ones, on the contrary, are introduced by a relative adverb of the type where, when, as ".

The Han (2015: 418) indicates that at one time it was thought that sentences such as those mentioned in (B), were traditionally considered adverbial subordinates, especially if they preceded the main sentence or if they appeared separated from it by an intonation inflection, for example; however, grammar indicates that the aforementioned analysis is not currently considered as such, since upon closer examination it was concluded that these were relative or substantive sentences. Lohndal (2017: 23) shares this proposal as he considers that the sentence "The prison swallowed up the ration of prisoners and the captives stayed where they were" is a relative sentence without an express precedent headed by the adverb where. This author indicates that given the various structures presented by subordinates some recent grammatical works have abandoned the concept of adverbial subordination as a denomination of a specific type of syntactic construction.

Considering what these sources indicate, the sentences mentioned in (A) and (B) would meet the requirements, so to speak, of the relative subordinates, since the four are introduced by the relative adverbs where and when respectively, and therefore, they could be classified as relative sentences without any problem. However, the syntactic structures of the sentences are not identical, the (A) sentences have a nominal phrase that precedes them and the (B) sentences do not have it as illustrated in the sentences themselves, sentences now cited in (C) and (D). Likewise, the functions they perform are not the same, the sentences of (C) modify the nominal phrase that precedes it, that is, its function is of modifier of a name and the sentences of (D) work as a modifier of the verb that governs them .

(C) a. I just sent SN [the OSREL letter [where I wrote my disagreement]].

b. SN [On September 19, OSREL [when the earthquake occurred]] was quietly having breakfast at home.

(D) a. I await you OSADV [where one are].

b. OSADV arrived [when you left].

Other reasons, why the limits that divide one class of sentences with the others are not clear, and many times the grammars create confusion at the time of grouping them, since they usually classify as adverbial subordinates those phrases that are not in reality (Chomsky, 1988: 15); for example the Han (2015: 537) says that the sentence "This is the house in which I was born" expresses the thought by means of a relative, but if the phrase "in which" is replaced by the relative adverb where and says "This is the house where I was born", it expresses a circumstantial sentence; however, it is notable that the structure of the sentence just quoted is that corresponding to a relative or adjective, since the subordinate refers to the noun phrase that is its antecedent. Chomsky (1988: 15) shows that the criterion that was followed to consider sentences as adverbial or relative was not the syntactic function that they fulfilled within the sentence, which would be expected, rather it was considered the fact of that "the relative was used belonged to the class of adverbs, which supposed a mixture of inadmissible criteria". Therefore, the fact that an adverbial sentence is considered in this respect must be based mainly on the syntactic and semantic functions it performs within the sentence and not on the criterion of which element is the one that unites them to the main sentence. Likewise, Chomsky warns that, as happens with subordinate adjectival sentences, being introduced by a relative does not prevent, under a semantic-syntactic criterion, that sentences such as those cited in (B) can be classified at the same time as adverbials of place, time and manner, "that although they are clearly adverbial sentences belong also, from another point of view, to the class of relative ones" (Chomsky, 1988: 14). Following the approach of this author, adverbial subordinate clauses can be considered relative ones insofar as they are introduced by relative adverbs, but not because they fulfil the same functions of an adjective or relative subordinate clause, which marks a clear difference between both classes. This author specifies that saying that an adverbial sentence can be both adjective suggests a contradiction, but points out that an adverbial sentence can be at the same time relative is different, since one would say that it is adverbial relative sentences in front of sentences of relative adjectives, but there will never be adjectival or adjectival sentences. This statement clarifies and determines that the functions performed by both types of sentences is different and that the adverbial subordinate clauses could be considered relative clauses only because they share the relative adverbial pronoun that unites them.

Considering the opinions that one have mentioned, the sentences of (A) and (B) share the relative adverbial introductory, however, it is notable that there are differences between one type and another of sentences. The phrases of (A) are a clear example of relative subordination or adjectives since they provide information about the noun phrase that precedes them, but the sentences shown in (B) do not have an element that precedes them and being directly after of the verb rector its function is an adverbial or circumstantial one. It could be thought that although both types of sentences share the same connection if a class has an antecedent to which it refers and the other does not, this should be a characteristic that distinguishes them and, consequently, the problem would be solved in a very simple manner, but it's not like that; on the one hand, because it has been suggested that adverbial subordinate clauses also have an antecedent (Foley, 2009; Ball, 1958;Chomsky, 1988) and on the other hand, because some linguists consider sentences like (B) are examples of free relative sentences whose antecedent is omitted.

The latter argue that both types of sentences have an antecedent to which they refer (Huddleston, 1984; Lohndal, 2017; Han, 2015), argue that, in some cases, the antecedent is not phonically expressed and it is an empty category, which, of course, it reinforces the idea that these are sentences of relative or rather of a subclass of these, known as free relative, also known as relative with implicit antecedent (Han, 2015: 3293). Huddleston indicates that these phrases "are characterized by being the only phonic representative of the nominal phrase in which they are inserted" (Huddleston, 1984: 448, 499). Lohndal (2017: 43) also appreciates that the relative without an express background or free relative allude to an antecedent that is not phonetically made, also considering that "structurally, this class of sentences, as well as the characteristics of the relative adverbs that introduce are not different from those with the sequences in which the relative has an express background"; however, one consider that functionally, there are notable differences. Following the concept of free reals, the adverbial subordinate clauses mentioned in (B) should have an empty category before the relative adverb as shown in (E) below:

(E) a. I wait for you where one are.

b. They arrived ø when you left.

This category illustrates very well what the aforementioned authors consider is the structure of the free relative. However, one does not agree with the existence of this element, since the function performed by the subordinate that is adjacent to the verb in this class of contexts is still different from that performed by the relative clauses. For this reason, in the next section one will talk about the antecedent, which presents some questions such as: it is necessary that the adverbial subordinate sentences must have an antecedent or not, to what extent the antecedent turns this class of sentences into relative ones, what function has this in subordinate adverbial sentences, it is possible that subordinate sentences are not precisely changing the antecedent.

1.7.1 The antecedent.

The main argument that is proposed to support that there is a silent antecedent in free relative sentences is that there is a type of omitted nominal phrase or empty category before relative as illustrated in the sentences of (E); however, there have been emphasized that one do not agree with this position. First, one will explain the proposals about a silent antecedent and later, one will try to prove that there is no antecedent and that the adverbial or prepositive phrases that precede a sentence headed by the relative where and when can be analyzed as another circumstantial complement of place or time.

1.7.2 Implicit or express background.

There are several opinions in relation to the antecedent. For Ariel (2014: 179,180) the antecedent subordinates that function as adverbial, is more frequent in place than in time and mode because:

1) there are no adequate lexemes that can function as antecedents for temporal and modal sentences, respectively those whose meaning incorporates the notes of time and manner; and

2) when the antecedent appears in these two types of sentences, the modification is preferred through relative sentences headed by that, so it is more frequent to find sentences with phrases like the moment in which or the moment when. However, apparently Ariel refers to the antecedent of the relative clauses, because when the mentioned constructions appear, the function that the subordinates have is not adverbial, but relative or adjectival, since the modification made by the subordinate is towards a noun. In this regard, Han (2015: 418) explains that the content of the connector when corresponds to the phrase "at the moment"; the adverbial relative can be replaced by that phrase and one assume that according to the grammatical analysis, the relative where could be substituted by the phrase "in the place where" as shown in the sentences of (F) where one have placed both sentences:

(F) a. I wait for you in the place where one are. / I'll wait for you where one are.

b. They arrived the moment you left. / They arrived when you left.

This grammar indicates that both constructions are equivalent, which suggests that it is a type of complementary distribution; in this respect, when the prepositional phrase proposed by Han appears, the relative adverb does not appear, since both contain the same meaning or perhaps a very similar one. Hoye (2014: 55) mentions that the questions that arise around the antecedent are very varied and nevertheless, it exposes three fundamental reasons that have to justify the existence of an antecedent in the free ones, while one considers it could help to clarify the belief that adverbial subordinates also have it. Hoye points out that the need to have an antecedent is motivated by the proper function of adjective or relative subordination as they are modifiers of a noun, so that such sentences must have a nominal phrase to refer to; however, if this element is omitted, the sentence has no one to modify and, consequently, they are no longer relative sentences but become nominal subordinate clauses. The point made by Hoye (2014) agrees with what Huddleston (1984: 449) proposes, since the latter holds that sentences such as those cited in (G), and that one have marked with italics, are relative ones:

(G) a . Who says that lie?

b. I decide to ignore those who insulted him.

c. Where your brother lives is too far to go on vacation.

d. As he said it seemed too abrupt.

Although the sentences of (G) are introduced by a relative and do not have an express background, the position they occupy is not the one that would serve the modifier of a noun, rather it is the proper place of a name. Even Huddleston (1984: 449) raises two possibilities of analysis, the first is that the sentences of (G) are considered relative and the second if they must be analyzed at a higher level, as a noun phrase, since the subordinates of (G) a, (G) c and (G) d fulfil the function of subject of the complete clause and that of (G) b of the direct object of the verb ignore, none of them plays the role of complement modifier of a noun but they are in function of noun. Now, Hoye (2014: 58) rightly points out that "when there is no antecedent, it is the elements of verbal construction that follow the relative that determine its reference. In short, one understands that the semantic function of relative constructions does not depend on the antecedent but on the element that follows the relative one". Although Huddleston (1984: 450) does not recognize this statement openly, he considers that sentences such as those he cites, and that one have put in (H), have a circumstantial function:

(H) a. They found oil where they least expected it.

b. They will do it when they can.

c. They will do it as they can.

Huddleston admits that the trades that the sentences of (G) and (H) are different, however, insists that they should be analyzed as relative free, since he thinks that some researchers consider them as sentences of an adverbial nature, but points out that such analysis it is not appropriate given that the sentences that one review in (G) do not fulfil the same function as those in (H). He considers that the sentences of (G), being introduced by an adverbial relative, are free relative, but perform the office of subject of the main sentence in which they are found, which takes as proof that both the sentences of (G) like those in (H) are sentences with implicit antecedents, but at the same time it emphasizes that the function they fulfil within the clause they are in must not be confused, that is, they are relative free but with different functions. Hoye (2014: 59) believes that in a sentence like that of (H) to "the relative where do not need any element that identifies the entity mentioned, but are the same elements of the verbal construction that follow" those who perform this task, and stresses the semantic function that determines what type of function it fulfils within the sentence.

In the corpus I analyzed, several examples were found in which there is a sentence that precedes the sentences that are introduced by the adverbial relative when and where, as shown in the following examples:

(I) a. He began to eliminate subsidies in the mid-90s, when he sold 19 mills in 142 million.

b. It is not my fault, I look at what reminds me of my friend, I look there where I discover the Frida that I knew.

In (I) a the underlined sentence that precedes the subordinate is prepositive and in (I) b is an adverbial phrase, but in both cases the antecedent of the subordinates could be considered, however, by omitting the phrase that precedes both sentences; in this respect, it is shown that ungrammatical sentences are not generated. The omission of the sentence that precedes the subordinate allows it to be the latter that modifies the verb directly as Hoye (2014) points out.

(J) a. He began to eliminate the subsidies, when he sold 19 mills in 142 million.

b. It's not my fault, I look at what reminds me of my friend, I look where I discover the Frida that I knew.

Although in relative clauses the omission of the preceding sentence does not generate ungrammatical sentences as illustrated in examples (K) b and (K) d, it also shows that syntactically they could no longer be considered relative but adverbial.

(K) a. They demolished SN [the OSREL building [where the Water Commission used to be]].

b. They demolished OSADV [where the Water Commission was before].

c. SN returned [the OSREL day [when the house was handed to me]].

d. OSADV returned [when they gave me the house].

The examples in (K) show that the omission of the sentence that precedes the subordinate one allows the adverbial relative when and where they are adjacent to the verb in the main sentence and modify it directly. Now, Hoye (2014) exposes a second question that has to do with the antecedent of the relative clauses, and it is pertinent to mention for the analysis of the adverbial subordinates. This question is related to the delimitation of the segment to which the relative refer, respectively what type of elements can function as antecedents. One considers it important to point to this question because, undoubtedly, the syntactic and semantic functions of the element that precedes the subordinate adverbial sentences should have different features from those with the background of the relative clauses, given that the trades of both types of sentences are different. In the case of locative subordinate clauses Ariel (2014: 179,180) indicates that the frequency of cases in which it can appear with an antecedent and without it is the same, besides, it considers that the lexemes that can function as such are unlimited; nevertheless, one consider that if the above sentence is a nominal phrase, the sentence that follows it can not be adverbial, but relative. And only in those cases in which an adverbial or prepositional phrase is the one that precedes the subordinate sentence could it be considered that the latter is adverbial as shown in the examples of (L):

(L) a. These appear where the situation you want to investigate is external.

b. I live where the tianguis is opened on Sundays.

In (L) the sentence that precedes the subordinate is adverbial and in (L) b the sentence is preceded by a prepositional phrase. Since the function of adverbs is to modify an adjective, a verb or an adverb, in (L) the adverb there could be considered the antecedent of the subordinate sentence that precedes it since it is possible that an adverb modifies another adverb. However, in the example (L) b the preposition could not be considered as its antecedent since syntactically the sentence introduced by the relative where is the term of the same one. In sentences such as (L) b, in which a preposition precedes the subordinate clause, the preposition specifies the place to which the subordinate refers, since the semantic meaning of the sentence with and without preposition is different, for example:

(M) a. I work where they fix blenders

b. I work where the blenders are fixed.

(M) a indicates that I work right in the place where blenders are fixed, but the second sentence (M) b shows that I work in the surroundings. Therefore, the preposition could not be considered the antecedent of the subordinate, on the one hand, because semantically a subordinate sentence can not modify a preposition, and on the other hand, because syntactically the subordinate sentence must be the term of the preposition. So, in the examples cited in (M), only (M) a could be considered to have an antecedent but (M) b not. Although the syntactic structure of this type of subordination is very controversial, it is remarkable that both the preposition and the relative adverbial form a semantic unit gives a different nuance to the sentence and, for this reason, this class of constructions have been grouped within the adverbial subordinates sentences, since their semantic functions are characteristic of an adverbial phrase.

The problem presented by the locative constructions increased by a preposition is that the latter and the relative where they have not yet been consolidated to the degree of being a single lexical unit as has occurred with some modal links as without or with the temporary as until or since, but when they appear adjacent, preposition and adverbial relative where they form a semantic unit that transmits a different sense to that which is perceived when the adverbial relative appears only. Greenbaum (1980: 355-361) mentions that some improper adverbial subordinate sentences are the composition of a preposition plus the conjunction that; for example for + that; by + that; up to + that or the union of an adverb more than, for example, still + but indicates that its function is non-substantive or relative circumstantial, which indicates that both the prepositions and the conjunction have come together to form a different conjunction. In relation to the syntactic structures that can have the phrases that precede the subordinate sentences of time and place can be a prepositional phrase as shown in the examples of (N).

(N) a. I wait for you SP [in [the place [where one are]]].

b. SP arrived [in [the moment [when you left]]].

The examples show that it is possible for the sentences headed by the adverbial relative where and when have an antecedent. And the difference between the phrase that precedes the subordinates of relative and the one that precedes the adverbials is that the first is a nominal phrase, while the second is a prepositional one; therefore the modification made by the subordinate sentence is different, since that an adverbial sentence can not modify a nominal phrase but to all the prepositional phrase as it is shown in the sentences of (O), where the omission of the preposition is impossible:

(O) a. * I wait for you where one are.

b. * The moment arrived when you left.

The ungrammaticality of the (O) examples shows that the function that adverbial subordinate clauses fulfil is different from that performed by relative clauses. The sentences the place where one were and the moment when you left no longer perform the same function without the preposition, now they are relative clauses and in the position in which they are found they can not modify the verb.

Chomsky (1988: 17) points out that when the sentences introduced by an adverbial relative have as antecedent a prepositive phrase as shown in the examples of (N), the circumstantial function does not correspond only to the relative sentence but to the syntagma composed by a preposition and at the end of it, both act together as a circumstantial complement to the ruling report. It also stresses that an adverbial subordinate sentence is not considered as such simply because it is introduced by a relative adverb. Rather, because even when it has an antecedent, with the omission of it, as the sentences in (B) show, the subordinate clause immediately fulfils the adverbial function within the sentence in which it appears and can also be commuted by an adverb (Chomsky, 1988: 16) as illustrated in sentences (P):

(P) a. I wait for you there

b. They arrived then.

The examples show that both the prepositional sentence and the subordinate sentence can be replaced by an adverb since they fulfil equivalent functions. Now, an interesting proposal about sentences that are preceded by a preposition is that they have a substantive character since they are considered to be the term of the preposition as shown in (Q), therefore, they could be considered as "substantiated adverbial sentences" (Chomsky, 1988), since the sentence that is found as a term of the preposition is in the position of a noun.

(Q) Study [in [where you recommended me]].

This analysis may be appropriate, since the functions of the sentences preceded by a preposition have a different structure from that of adverbial sentences that are not preceded by a prepositional or adverbial phrase. Being preceded by a preposition, they are the term of this and, therefore, syntactically they are in the position of a noun, but their function continues to be a circumstantial complement of place or time. It is also possible that in some sentences the preposition is not only governed by the ruling verb but also by the subordinate sentence. In this regard, Chomsky (1988: 52) warns that there are adverbial sentences that are preceded by a prepositional or adverbial phrase and both the governing verb and the subordinate verb rule, see the example proposed in (R):

(R) He went to where the rabbit had fled. (Chomsky, 1988: 52)

Now, other ways in which the prepositive, adverbial or even nominal phrase that precedes the sentences headed by the relative have been analyzed, where and when are the ones suggested by Chomsky (1988) and Ariel (2014). Chomsky considers that there are subordinate clauses introduced by where and when they have an antecedent, but they do not modify it, rather it considers that this proposition only states a different way of expressing what the preceding phrase indicates as (S) illustrates. One should notice that the adverbial subordinate is not modifying the adverbial phrase very early.

(S) I like to leave very early, when there is no traffic on the streets (Chomsky, 1988: 52)

Ariel (2014: 182) proposes that prepositional or adverbial phrases that precede subordinate temporal and locative sentences can be treated as another circumstantial complement, that is, the very early adverbial phrase is a circumstantial complement and the subordinate adverbial sentence a second circumstantial complement that specifies the temporal sense that the phrase adverbial expresses. Both approaches are interesting because, even in simple sentences, the presence of two circumstantial complements is possible, for example, Tomorrow I come at 6:30 or Andrew is playing outside in the yard.

On the other hand, one have analyzed the possibility that this class of sentences may have an antecedent, however, not in all cases a prepositional phrase can be introduced that works as an antecedent, since the result sometimes becomes forced or perhaps it could be a marked use especially in the case of the temporary ones introduced by when, nexus that appears more in the examples of the corpus. One should see the examples in (T) in which the subordinate clause is marked in brackets:

(T) a. He pointed out that [when money is secured in the arrests, the bank must deposit it].

b. They said that the most important thing when criminals have hostages is to avoid violence.

In both examples the adverbial subordinates headed by when they are within a substantive subordinate clause that functions as a direct complement to the verbs indicate and say respectively. In (T), the adverbial subordinate is found before what is its ruling sentence and in (T) b the subordinate is in the middle of what is its ruling sentence; if such propositions are introduced the nominal phrase that is its antecedent before the relative and that one have highlighted in (T), the sentences become repetitive:

(T) a. He pointed out that at the moment when money is secured in the detentions the bank must deposit it.

b. They said that the most important thing at the moment when criminals have hostages is to avoid violence.

Greenbaum (1980: 102) emphasizes that the antecedent does not appear in some contexts because it is redundant. Ariel (2014: 180) agrees with the proposal of Greenbaum (1980); he considers that the low frequency of the antecedent in temporal sentences and manners is for a reason of linguistic economy, since the semantic information provided by the relative adverbs is the same as the antecedent one, therefore its use is redundant, and it is omitted especially in the temporal and modal reports.

Finally, the third question referred to by Hoye (2014: 55) has to do with the relations between the relative and the antecedent; this author indicates that in the case of relative ones, it is posed whether in the sentence "Whenever you come", that is relative or is a conjunction and the same can apply in the sentences of relative adverbial as in the sentence "He did it as he could": as it is relative or a conjunction. Other proposals (Huddleston, 1984: 450 cites what Chomsky (2014) mentions) are based on the fact that the nexus or relative adverbial fulfils several functions: that of being nexus, of course, that of carrying the meaning of the implicit antecedent and that of being an adjunct element of the report in which they find themselves. Ariel (2014) considers that the adverbial relative fulfil a transpository function, but the author also contemplates the possibility that they occupy an intermediate function between adverbs and conjunctions. One consider that in the adverbial subordinates, the relative fulfils the function of nexus or conjunction between the verb and the subordinate as long as there is no antecedent in between; for example: the sentence They bought the book where the teacher sent them shows that the relative adverbial where fulfils the functions of subordinating nexus and also adjunct to the sentence in which it is found.

Now, to finish this section, my point of view in relation to the adverbial subordinates is that they should be grouped according to the semantic functions they perform within the sentence, respectively those that are characteristic of an adverb as indicated by the grammar traditional. Although one consider that there are sentences that within the actual grammar were not really adverbial, one consider that grouping them within relative ones by the fact of being introduced by an adverbial relative is not the best criterion, although one understand the reasons why some researchers have considered a certain position. One believes that the semantic function that they perform within the sentence in which they find themselves is what determines what type of subordination it is, but not the nexus that introduces them. Likewise, one considers that adverbial subordinate sentences can have an antecedent and that syntactically changes their structure, but semantically they continue to fulfil the functions of a circumstantial time or place. One quoted the words of Chomsky that summarize in a better way this point of view: "In short, a relative sentence is not adverbial only because it is introduced by adverbs where, when, as an equivalent, but also because, the antecedent is in turn an adverb -or an equivalent prepositional phrase-, or, above all, when by elision of that, the subordinate clause goes directly to perform the adverbial function within the main one, being in turn, for that reason, commutable by an adverb "( Chomsky, 1988: 16)

1.8 Arguments or sentential attachments.

At the beginning of this chapter one referred to what the various grammars have pointed out in relation to adverbial subordinate clauses and one point out that this class of sentences is considered by all the authors mentioned as an adjunct or tertiary element according to the terminology of Cook (1988). So in this work, the adverbial subordinate sentences themselves will be studied in the same way: as a class of adjunct or sentence attachment, as indicated by the aforementioned authors, since this is the function they fulfil within the clause. In this section one will briefly discuss why one will take this position.

In general terms, the definitions that were found about the arguments and the attachments agree that the former are obligatory elements and the latter are optional. For Thomson and Martinet (1960: 77) each language has an internal structure formed by syntagmas that have complements around a nucleus. The nuclei, in turn, choose elements that enclose certain properties of categorical selection and accept those that are compatible with them, which is shown from its lexical entry itself, indicating what type of elements they necessarily require. As these authors show, what determines the complements to be obligatory or optional is the relation that these keep with the meaning of the nuclei. In this regard, an obligatory argument will have a closer semantic relationship with the nucleus, because the argument is part of its meaning. On the contrary, an optional complement does not have that same correspondence, because it is not part of the meaning of the nucleus. Such differences are reflected in the positions that both complements take in the syntactic structure: the compulsory arguments will take places very close to or adjacent to the nucleus while the optional ones will be placed in places not so close to the nucleus or in attachment positions (Thomson and Martinet, 1960).

Another characteristic that distinguishes adjuncts is that they provide information not claimed by the semantics of the verb such as time, space, mode or reason of the action that expresses the verb. According to this definition, the adverbial subordinates have an adjunct rather than an argumentative behaviour, since their presence is not required by the semantics of the verbs that govern them. Likewise, Farrell (2005) considers that each element assumes a role within the sentence or phrase in which it is found, such papers are known as grammatical relations. Following this idea, if the adverbs fulfil the function of circumstantial complements within the sentence in which they are found, the adverbial subordinates would have to perform the same tasks as those elements, since they are considered equivalent and therefore should be studied as such; grammatically they fulfil the same functions. In addition, considering that each element performs not only syntactic but also semantic functions, adverbial subordinate clauses would be considered sentence elements attached as well as an adverb, since they fulfil the same thematic roles: time, place and mode.

Lohndal (2017: 23) citing Huddleston (1984) mentions that "the only thing that seems to have in common the structures that have traditionally been classified as adverbial or circumstantial sentences is, on the one hand, to play a non-argumentative function with respect to the main report (…)".Ariel (2014: 183) agrees on this because it indicates that this class of sentences has been considered optional or not necessary. It also stresses that in the case of temporal and manners the circumstantial function is perceived more, but in the locative ones this profession is not so clear, since there are verbs that demand the precision of a place, it refers to the verbs of movement particularly in the examples that one transcribes in (U) and (V):

(U) a. I went to Germany.

b. It came from Salamanca.

c. He stayed at his house.

(V) a. One will follow him wherever he goes.

b. He brought it from where it came from.

c. I did not find him where he had stayed.

In many examples that are analyzed in the corpus, it was found that the governing verb requires the preposition because they are movement verbs such as those just quoted in the examples of (U) and (V), to come, to go, to leave, to walk, to emerge, to emanate, to emerge, among others. With this class of verbs the omission of the preposition is impossible, since it is governed by the verb, so that its omission generates an ungrammatical sentence:

* I left where I was.

* I come where I was born.

With some verbs of movement the omission of the preposition is possible, for example, I go to Suzy, but Lohndal (2017) indicates that this can be a dialectal variant, where not only the preposition but also the verb of the subordinate. One mentioned earlier that movement verbs subcategorize the prepositions that govern, and it is important to note that these in turn need that their term be a noun that indicates place, or a locative adverb, for example, They left the cinema at 10 and It emerges from there, so they will also require subordinate sentences that have locative traits. In this respect, subordinate adverbial place sentences fulfil such characteristics, therefore, they also seem to be required by the semantics of movement verbs. Ariel indicates that the verbs in the sentences of (U) demand a preposition of place and fulfil a circumstantial function; and in the sentences of (V) the subordinates function as circumstantial "filling a function required by the verbs of the same subordinate, and if this is so, nothing more logical than suppose that in any other subordinate place, the adverb where it also performs this function" (Ariel, 2014: 182,183). Thus, in such examples it is shown that subordinate adverbial place sentences can be considered as arguments rather than as adjuncts, since the semantics of the verb requires them. However, its function is that of a circumstantial complement which is contradictory, since such complements are not considered arguments of the verb but attachments.

Regarding the optional nature of circumstantial Wray (2005), one may point out that considering them circumstantial also represents a problem, since many of these sentences do not express the circumstance in which the action of the main sentence occurs, but in the subordinate is indicated only a state of affairs that must be fulfilled or satisfied for a certain situation to occur or occur, especially in the case of conditional and final. Wray (2005: 289) mentions that not all are optional, in the sense that there are some circumstantial that seem to be required by verbs, for example: "Stuart weighs a lot" or "Stuart misbehaves", with both verbs the suppression of the phrase that indicates measure makes both sentences ungrammatical:

* Stuart weighs. and

* Stuart behaves.

Temporary adverbial subordinate sentences are not within the adjuncts required by the verb, but the locative ones would be considered as such, specifically with the verbs that indicate movement; therefore, throughout the analysis one will do in the following chapters one will treat them as attachments or sentence attachments to temporary sentences but as arguments to subordinate adverbial place sentences.

Now, one have only referred to the sentences that are introduced by an adverbial relative, since the questions that one consider only concern them, however, there are other links that introduce this type of sentences, so that In the next section one will focus on these connectors and the different classifications that were found and one will propose a classification.

Classification of connections (links).

To finish this chapter one will talk about how the adverbial subordinates have been grouped and one will propose a classification of our own. Adverbial subordinate clauses have been classified in different ways, either by their functions or by their semantic features, or by their syntactic features, Greenbaum (1980: 537) for example, makes both classifications. As one have seen the adverbial subordinates are introduced mainly by relative adverbs when, where and as which, may be preceded by a prepositional phrase or by an adverbial phrase, for example: I sat [[there] [where is the plum tree ]], where the adverb there precedes the report headed by the relative where, or Passed [[by] [where Rosa lives]], where the sentence introduced by the relative where is preceded by the preposition by, in both examples show that there is no nominal phrase involved.

Although the most common connectors that relate to the adverbial subordinate sentences with the main one are where, when and how, they may vary. Lyons (1981) indicates that in order to establish a connection, one can use different types of links such as "conjunctions, conjunctive locutions, adverbs, adverbial locutions, prepositions, as well as the combination of them." In the case of locative, to indicate relations of movement, the adverb where can be increased by some prepositions, for example where, where, where, where and where (Ball, 1958; Lyons, 1981). Temporary regarding, the list of connectors is wider; Ball (1958) records the elements that have antecedents: just … when; not yet … when; not good … when; then … when and among those who have no antecedent or no fixed antecedent: since, then what, before, after, how, while and so on. Regarding so, the most common links are: as, as yes, according, according to how. Likewise, the adverbial subordinate sentences of their own will be those that have no antecedent within the main clause, or those that are implied within the main clause.

Note.

Throughout this chapter one analyzed the problems that arise around adverbial subordinate clauses. One explored what the different grammars have said about this class of sentences which showed that all the cited linguists agree that they should be studied from the functions they fulfil within the sentence in which they are found. One considers that this approach is the most appropriate, so the analysis that one will make in later chapters will be based on the functions that these sentences fulfil. Likewise, one noted that some linguists consider that adverbial subordinates could be studied as free relative and form part of that group, however, one explained that one do not agree with this approach. One showed that these two classes of subordinates do not have the same syntactic structure and that they are different in the semantic aspect, since they perform different functions because they do not modify the same grammatical categories; therefore, that would be a fundamental reason that supports the fact that they must be considered different and they must be classified within the adverbial subordinates as has been done traditionally and not take them to the group of the relative ones only by the fact that they share the relative ones that introduce them. Finally, the adverbial subordinates of time will be treated as adjuncts since they are not required by verbs, but one will consider adverbial subordinate place sentences as argumentative since they are required as a term for prepositions governed by verbs.

CHAPTER II. DIDACTIC IMPLICATIONS

2.1 The cognitive processes of teachers

Cognition processes have a considerable impact on the professional life of teachers. They are active subjects who make decisions using complex networks of knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs. (Freeman, 2002: 1-13) These networks are personalized, practice oriented, and context-sensitive (Borg, 2003: 81-109). In fact, at the beginning of a teacher training program, students may have inappropriate (Maclellan, Soden, 2003: 110-120) or unrealistic views about teaching and learning. (Hashweh, 2005: 272) It seems that the development of teachers' cognitive processes is central to understanding their conceptions (Andrews, 2003: 351-370). Each student conceptualizes and interprets his studies of pedagogical formation in a different and unique way.

Cognition not only determines what teachers do, but it is also structured by the experiences that they accumulate (Kennedy, 2002: 355-370). Many teachers refer to their experience as a unique, personal, and unique entity. It is a personal history of knowledge and information that is gained through trial and error and relates to pedagogical ideas that are effective under certain circumstances. (Burns, Richards, 2009: 85).

For purposes of this research, the concept of cognitions will be defined as those eclectic mental constructs that come from different sources: personal experiences, prejudices, judgments, ideas, intentions. All of them are highly subjective and vaguely delimited; however, they give meaning to the performance of the teacher in the classroom. (Sendan, Roberts, 1998: 229). People use their cognitions to remember, interpret, predict, and control events that occur in the classroom and make decisions (Savignon, 2002: 103). They are products of the construction of the world and are based on processes of associative learning; but they also have a cultural origin insofar as they are constructed in forms of social and communicative interaction. Cognitions are composed of more or less integrated and consistent sets of ideas that are constructed, based on everyday experiences (Tillema, 1998: 217- 228). They are incomplete and simplified versions of reality, which although they remain inaccessible to consciousness, have some level of internal organization, structure and systematicity. (Kane, Sandretto, Heath, 2002: 177-228)

2.2 Didactic implications of teaching adverb phrase

The functional and communicative approach presents the need to propose the adverb phrase teaching with a series of didactic implications. We point out the following (Canale, Swain, 1980: 1- 47):

1) It is necessary to start from the knowledge that students have, from the level of use of their own language, and from here to introduce the grammatical contents when the student already has a sufficient mature development that makes possible the process of linguistic abstraction . In the first cycles it is advisable to promote a grammatical work of a qualitative nature, which ensures the formation of concepts and grammatical reflection.

2) Adverb phrase reflection must be oriented towards the development of discursive competence, that is, to improve the ability to understand and produce texts, taking into account the circumstances of the communicative context, as well as the rules of textual and linguistic system’s organization. This requires operative approaches on the part of the teacher that go beyond providing linguistic competence, learning words, structures and rules; beyond adverb phrase in short. The grammatical oration, the basis of many of the language classes, must give way to global language activities as a "system of communication systems". Grammar and also adverb phrase are not taught, language is taught for the student to learn adverb phrase, including aspects regarding adverb phrase, world knowledge, rules of language use, different uses of language and so on.

3) It is necessary to start from the notion of "communication" because, in general, it is the fundamental objective of the teaching of languages ​​today, and a reflection must be made on the ways in which language contributes to communication . This approach addresses a fundamental issue such as the fact that communication uses signals provided by the lexical and grammatical system and, depending on the level at which students wish to participate in the communication, will need to develop levels of Ability to use this system of signals in a creative way, through their own productions and in different situations.

4) The teaching of language at this stage must progressively update the linguistic system of students to put it into operation in an increasingly diversified and conscious way. In order to do this, the school should encourage the autonomous and personal use of language and awaken a curious, active and creative attitude so that they are motivated not only to express something but also to be interested in how they are expressing it. This involves working on such fundamental aspects as the work of registers (from a non-exclusively normative perspective), practical and effective knowledge of the principles of communication, the development of a reflexive attitude about one's own language and inclusion in the process Security and freedom of use. In other words, language is studied as a structural system, but whose primary function is to make communication possible, since this is the idea of ​​the language on which the communicative curriculum is based.

5) Adverb phrase knowledge should contribute to the management of language regulations, which is built largely on grammatical concepts. We fully agree with Littlewood (1984: 55) when he states: “What we propose is that in the school environment the language is not considered as something external to the subject and completely finished ergo that is transmitted as an aseptic heritage of tradition and culture; It is necessary to be aware that language is, as has recently accentuated transformational generative theories, a dynamic manifestation energy of man”.

However, in spite of what has been said, one should not fall into the error of expressivity being everything and it is not necessary to correct anything (opposite opposite to what happened until recently in the classroom). As Crystal points out (1981) "Is a false dichotomy. There must be a place for expressiveness … But there must also be a place for precision, appropriateness and propriety, aspects in which it is necessary to socialize the child, linguistically speaking”.

2.3 Didactic variables of adverb phrase teaching and learning process

Group Activities

The idea of ​​learning as a cooperative process does not represent a novelty in pedagogy since such important authors as Dewey, Decroly, Cousinet or Freinet already showed the importance of this mode of learning. Now, it will be cognitive psychology with the contributions of the Geneva School on the processes of learning and development of the child that will introduce in education an individualistic substratum that prevents recognition of the intersubjective dimension of language. Recently, however, the contributions of Vygotsky's historical-cultural current and the works developed (1964: 97-98), in that same line by Bruner (2009) constitute-for the current school pedagogy models of great interest to be incorporated into the school methodology. Thus, without neglecting the importance of individual activities in many cases, particular emphasis is placed on the adoption of cooperative learning models.

The project is to turn the classroom, the classroom, into a research, learning group. The first objective is to create a good climate, to explain very well the objective, to offer spaces of opinion, to present those opinions, to explain what they hope to achieve with these activities.

Conflicts of personal or group learning are resolved through interaction. The common capital is the desire to learn or even the will to solve concrete problems of the language itself and its grammar.

In this spirit students who already know one thing learn more, because they explain what they know and have to verbalize. This helps them formulate what they have learned. However, for those who do not know, it is explained some of his own age and with the same language. Everything is more understandable. In addition, and this is the essence, everyone is in class with a much more participatory, responsible attitude. They are protagonists of what they learn. The teacher also changes his attitude; he is no longer the one who makes a speech, but the one that accompanies in the learning process of the students. Proposes, provokes, encourages, is a catalyst within the classroom.

When the analysis of language is seen as a "construction" activity, it is an educational practice guided by logic. Here students develop themselves as a heterogeneous group through collective deliberation on their linguistic practices. This process assumes the absence of hierarchical control of the teacher. From the student's point of view, investigating, theorizing, deciding and applying the language in different contexts are the integral components of linguistic practice in the classroom and facilitating their subsequent generalization to different situations outside of it.

Working on discussions of situations recorded from games and simulation of communicative situations, and from the different types of speeches and texts that are developed in classrooms in different subjects, can be useful methodological resources to analyze their productions and the Of others, in relation to the ideas exposed, the exposition of concepts and the defence of the arguments, the rhetorical elements used as well as the modes of interaction that occur, etc. All this can contribute to reflect on what syntactic tools, what idiomatic registers, what lexical selection you have to make in order to get a correct and adequate expression of your ideas in a de-terminated context.

In the line of English didactics there is a theoretical framework that allows the observation of the multitude of didactic variables that intervene in the teaching and learning of English. Here we can distinguish four blocks of elements, according to Scrivener (2005: 62):

(A) those relating to linguistic content;

(B) those that affect human behaviour: the actions for which a teacher plans, teaches, evaluates, relates to a group of students. Such behaviours respond to wills and intentions and are therefore more difficult to objectify, to understand and above all to reproduce;

(C) those that affect the mental processes: the operations that occur in the brain when it comes to learning the English language

(D) those external factors that constitute the conditions in which the action of teaching or learning a foreign language develops. These are decisive factors in the processes and reflections of the teaching of the foreign language, namely: the formal or informal situation of the teaching, the age and / or interests of the students, the hours (intensive, extensive), resources and instruments With which it is counted.

To propose a description of the didactic variables is not an easy task, since they, as social phenomena, are subject to historical fluctuations and to human intentionalities (Zanting, Verloop and Vermut, 2003: 36). This open nature, in permanent construction, of its nature, makes it difficult to appreciate the essence of the teaching and learning process.

            Table 1 presents a comparison of the functions of the didactic variables of the teaching and learning process regarding adverb phrase, according to three didactic models: Grammar-translation, Audio-lingual or Communicative.

Table 1.

Teaching models in teaching and learning adverb phrase

2.4 The grammatical component of adverb phrase in English as a foreign language

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages ​​(Council of Europe, 2001) defines competence as the knowledge, skills and attitudes developed by users of a language in its use, the sum of these skills allow a person to perform certain actions. The Council of Europe distinguishes between two types of competence; general competences, which are those that are not directly related to the language but can be useful for language activities, and communicative skills that allow a person to act using linguistic means. At the same time, communicative competence is divided into three classes: pragmatic, sociolinguistic and linguistic competences.

In the first place, pragmatic competence has to do with the functional use of linguistic resources. This competence is related to the domain of discourse and elements such as cohesion, coherence, irony, parody and so on. This competition also focuses on the interactions and cultural environments in which such interactions take place.

For its part, sociolinguistic competence refers to the cultural conditions inherent in the use of language. It deals with social conventions such as the rules of courtesy and the different norms that regulate the interaction between different generations, sexes and social groups. This competence affects communication between representatives of different cultures. Finally, there is the linguistic competence, defined as the knowledge of the formal resources and the capacity to use them. This knowledge is treated independently of the sociolinguistic value of its variants and the pragmatic functions of its realizations. The lexical, semantic, phonological, orthographic, orthopetical and grammatical competences are recognized in the Common European Framework as components of linguistic competence. Given that the present research focuses on the description of the teaching methods of the adverb phrase grammar component, it is convenient to take the term grammatical component, defined in the Common European Framework as the ability to understand and express meanings, expressing and recognizing phrases and "Well-formed" sentences (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 110). However, the definition of grammar is something that is not addressed in depth in the Common European Framework. The Council of Europe states that: The grammar of any language in this [formal] sense is enormously complex, and so far resists a conclusive or exhaustive treatment. There are several conflicting theories and models about word organization in sentences. It is not the competence of the Reference Framework to evaluate them and to recommend the use of none, but rather to ensure that users express what they have decided to adopt and what consequences that choice has for their practice.

In this regard, other authors are more specific when it comes to talking about adverb phrase and how it should be taught in the classroom. According to Batstone (1994), in the first place is the grammar understood as product with all of its components, including the adverb phrase. In this case, the adverb phrase is represented by a series of rules, a product that can be delivered to the student. Adverb phrase structures are blocks that the student can manipulate. This way of conceiving adverb phrase would correspond to the structural approach in that it understands adverb phrase as one of the basic components of a language and it is studied in isolation.

Batstone (1994: 116) states that the second way of conceiving the adverb phrase is as a process. In this conception, language is given more importance in practice than in theory. The goal is for the student to see language as a procedure that he learns to put into practice through different grammatical rules while concentrating his attention on the meaning of what he says. Adverb phrase as a process is attached to the functional approach.

Finally, Batstone (1994: 123) mentions that if adverb phrase as a product is not given due attention, there is a risk that it will not be applied as a process in practice. In response to this problem we have the third way of conceiving adverb phrase, as a skill. The student is expected to pay attention to adverb phrase as a product, while working on activities that focus on adverb phrase as a process; that is it is an intermediate point between both approaches in which it is understood that for there to be effective communication there must be awareness about the use of adverb phrase teaching and learning rules. This conception of adverb phrase teaching and learning process is a combination of the three approaches mentioned above.

For its part, Ur (1999: 75) affirms that the definition of grammar more frequent is "the way in which the words are joined to form sentences correctly"; however, the term "grammar" can be applied in more short units, like a phrase, words or morphemes. In addition, adverb phrase not only covers the rules that must be followed to articulate these units, but also takes care of the meaning of grammatical structures. This last aspect is one of the most difficult to understand for the student.

On the other hand, the place of adverb phrase within the teaching of a foreign language is a controversial subject. Several theories affirm that the knowledge of the adverb phrase must be intuitive and not an aspect that is formally taught while others propose that, although the adverb phrase should not be the central aspect, it does have to approach. These positions are evident in the different teaching methods.

However, as Ur mentions, the problem is not whether grammar should be taught or not. In this respect, adverb phrase is necessary and can serve as a tool to facilitate the learning process. What should be avoided is simply to teach adverb phrase as an end in itself. Thus adverb phrase must be accompanied by the practice of other skills such as speech or listening without which effective learning of a language is not possible. As a component of the language, grammar, together with the adverb phrase, are included in the learning process of the language. However, as with any other component, such as lexical or semantic, it is necessary to develop a particular teaching methodology of this component according to the needs of students. The main elements that must compose a methodology of teaching of the grammar component, as well as the main differences between the concepts of methodology and method.

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY AND METHOD IN TEACHING ADVERB PHRASE

3.1 Conceptual ambiguity of "method"

Before describing the different methods and methodological approaches used in the German classrooms, it would be useful to clarify the conceptual ambiguity of the term method – from the Greek methods: "path", "process" – referred to, within the framework of language teaching, Current methodology of linguistic analysis, as a manual or textbook, among other existing contents, such as the reference to the learning procedure, differentiating, in this sense, the inductive method of deductive.

Aggarwal  (2009: 15), in one of the works that have addressed this aspect in English, warns that: it is often called "method" to what is in fact an approach that takes as a base of theoretical reflection on the language and / or on learning, and in it one find more space for the interpretation and individual variation of what a method would allow. This is the reason why we now more aptly call "Communicative Approach" to the methodological current that in its beginnings was called "Communicative Method", for example.

Due to the polysemic character of both terms, we consider it convenient to give method only the first meaning, namely a "methodological stream", leaving the conceptual value of "textbook" for the term "manual", and that of "methodological approach "To determine the specific perspective or theory, within a methodological context, so that a given" method "may have different" approaches ", embodied in various" manuals ". Therefore, we will understand by "method" the process or way to achieve a certain objective, whereas "approach" would consist of the perspective taken as a point of view for the approach of a certain question.

3.2 Methodology and method

A distinction between the concepts of methodology and method is necessary because in the reviewed literature there are certain discrepancies between the authors who work on the subject of English as a foreign language. In most cases no distinction is made between the concepts of methodology and method, in others the concept of methodology is defined by conferring characteristics of the concept of the method. Therefore, this work takes the definitions of the authors that provide the clearest distinction between methodology and method.

Nunan (1991: 39-40) refers to the Longman dictionary of applied linguistics to offer what he considers the most adequate definition of what a methodology and its components are. According to this definition a methodology is the study of the practices and procedures used in teaching, as well as the principles and beliefs that reside in them, which give rise to the approaches. The methodology also includes the study of the nature of language skills such as reading, writing, listening and listening; and the procedures, lesson plans, materials and textbooks used for their teaching.

Richards and Rodgers (1986: 98) define the method as a general plan for the orderly presentation of procedures for teaching a language, this presentation and method itself are based on a selected approach. For these authors the approach is a set of related beliefs, about the nature of learning and teaching of languages ​​that are the basis of principles for the practices of teaching a language.

In other words, the idea of ​​approach refers to the assumptions and beliefs about language and its learning, whereas the method refers to the level at which these beliefs are applied to the design of the method itself, in this design establish the characteristics of objectives, instructional materials, activities, type of syllabus, as well as the characteristics of the role of teacher and students.

According to Richards & Rodgers (1986), the last level that is part of a methodology is the procedure, which refers to the class techniques, practices and behaviours that occur at the time of the class when applying the elements of a method. The conjugation of the approach, the design and the procedure applied to the class give way to what we know as methodology. However, this methodology should not necessarily consist of elements belonging to the same method or approach, but can combine them taking into account the particular beliefs of each teacher, therefore a methodology simply adopts elements of one or several types of method.

The following are detailed elements of the design that give account of a methodology: teaching objectives, the role of the student and the teacher, the type of activities to be developed, the role of materials and the type of syllabus adopted.

TEACHING OBJECTIVES

The first element that Richards & Rodgers (1986) makes is part of a methodology are the objectives. Widdowson (1983, quoted in White, 1988), defines goal as the pedagogical intentions of a particular course, which are expected to be reached at the end or during a period of it; Likewise, the objectives are principles that can be measured by means of an evaluation. In addition, objectives are usually formulated in terms of behaviour with an action verb (eg, define, identify, classify, etc.), so that they are specific, unambiguous, and measurable.

On the other hand, White (1988: 110) states that the objectives must account for four elements. They should state what the student is expected to do, under what conditions, in how much time and with what mastery of the language (eg, write an essay about a known topic by providing arguments for and against). This formulation allows the teacher and the students to have a clear guide with respect to the contents and expected accomplishments in the course.

In addition, Nunan (1988) agrees with White that objectives as well as serving as a guide for content selection also provide a clear idea to students and teachers of what they can expect from the course. Nunan adds that there are different ways of formulating objectives, either specifying what the teacher and student are going to do, specifying the course content and behaviours that the student can develop after taking the course.

Nunan (1988) makes a distinction between two kinds of objectives. The first is the real world objectives, these objectives refer to the activities that the student can do in contexts other than the classroom. The second class is the pedagogical objectives, these refer to the activities that the student must carry out in the classroom. Another distinction that Nunan (1988) makes with respect to objectives is the difference between product objectives and process objectives. The first are the objectives that describe what the students will be able to do as a result of their learning during the course, while the process objectives are those that will enable the student to develop the skills necessary to meet the product objectives. On the other hand, each method formulates different objectives according to its conception of the teaching of a foreign language. The following are examples of the parameters taken into account in formulating the objectives according to the best known methods, compiled by Stern (1990: 66).

Grammar-Translation Method: Being focused on understanding and memorizing the system of grammatical rules, the grammatical-translation method does not take into account oral production and comprehension skills in its objectives. The most important thing is the understanding of texts in the target language, which eventually allow the user to speak and write in it.

Natural Method: Unlike the previous method, the natural method focuses on the understanding of oral texts in the target language. Therefore memorization is not a primary goal. Grammatical rules are inferred and the emphasis is on the understanding of sounds and simple phrases related to the context in which the class is given.

Reading Method: The objectives are aimed at practical purposes developed from reading rather than memorizing concepts. As their emphasis is on reading comprehension, objectives are not primarily concerned with oral and written production.

Audio- Lingual Method: The emphasis is on "fundamental skills" such as reading comprehension and oral production. Through instruction and practice the student must improve those skills as he works on other skills such as oral comprehension and written production.

Cognitive method: Although also concerned with reading comprehension skills and oral production, the cognitive method emphasizes language control in its different manifestations, so its objectives are broader. Not only does it give importance to the knowledge of the grammatical rules regarding the adverb phrase, but it also pays attention to its application.

In addition to the objectives set for each class session, the role of the student and the teacher in the classroom is fundamental in the construction of a teaching methodology, since these are the main actors in the process of learning a foreign language.

STUDENT’S ROLE

Each teaching method requires the teacher and student certain characteristics and attitudes in the classroom. Here is the description of the student's role according to the six most frequent methods as explained by Stevick (1996).

Grammar-Translation Method: In this method the student has to remember the different grammatical rules of the language he is learning, especially those regarding adverb phrase. He must know how the prefixes and suffixes are articulated, and he also must know the terms (eg, verb, noun, adverb, etc.). The student is a passive subject who is limited to receiving what the teacher gives and focuses on memory skills.

Reading Method: As in the Grammar-Translation method, the student must memorize grammatical categories, rules and vocabulary. However, this knowledge is applied by the student in more or less real contexts. The student is asked to use expressions in the target language, rather than reciting them by heart. The student must practice to correct any mistakes he may have.

Audio Lingual Method: Unlike previous methods, this method requires the student to work for long periods of time to improve his or her ability in the language. However, with regard to production, the student is limited to say what is related to the textbook, elements that are not within that context should be avoided. On the other hand, the student is not asked to remember certain grammatical categories, memory is a secondary element, the most important is repetition.

Silent Method: In this method the student must have three fundamental characteristics: independence, autonomy and responsibility. The student should focus on his own learning process and the resources he has at his disposal. Upon receiving few or very few instructions from the teacher the student is obliged to learn and analyze the contents on his own. It focuses on repetition of words to improve pronunciation. In addition, the student must infer adverb phrase within other grammatical structures.

Community approach: In this method the student must participate in conversations with his / her classmates, with elements of the target language as well as their mother tongue, the teacher corrects or translates and the student must repeat. The students are the ones who generate the conversations, after the phase of conversation the student must copy the transcription of the talk. The student must be active and participate in activities.

Natural Method: Based on the fact that learning a second language is similar to learning the mother tongue, the student is passive in principle while listening to the teacher, then the student is responsible for making their own productions and assimilating corrections Made by him. No memorization of rules or vocabulary is required, but the student will produce as he feels more secure with his knowledge.

The role of the teacher on the other hand, also has quite clear parameters that allow their identification and classification. These are presented below.

TEACHER'S ROLE

Generally teaching is seen as an activity performed by a teacher in order to generate changes in apprentices. A central component of the methodology is the development of the role of the teacher, which has to do with the choice of how to act in the classroom. It should be noted that this choice affects decisions regarding the development of the teaching program (activities to be carried out, techniques to be used, etc.), which in turn influences the students' learning experience.

In the first place Harmer (2007) presents the role of the teacher as controller. In this one, the teacher assumes the whole charge of the class and the students work to the same rate. In addition, the teacher not only controls what students do, but when they should speak and what language to use to do so. Some stages of the session lend themselves to this type of role, for example, the practice of language.

When a teacher acts as a controller tends to talk most of the time, which can be seen as unhelpful for the student, since it decreases his communicative practice time. However, Harmer (2007: 120) reminds us that in most cases, the teacher, constantly addressing students, is the most important source for example in acquiring new vocabulary. However, it is important to keep in mind that the teacher can not play an absolutely controlling role if students are expected to have the opportunity to learn, rather than just being taught.

On the other hand, it is clear that a great part of the teacher's role is to evaluate the performance of his students, a necessary question not only pedagogically, but also demanded almost naturally by students, especially in communicative activities. However, it is pertinent to establish a differentiation between two types of evaluation: correction and organized feedback. In the teaching stages in which the teacher is totally in control of the class and the student is required to reproduce correctly what is presented to him / her, the possible errors that this one can commit are corrected almost immediately. Thus, the role of the teacher is to show the student the origin of his mistake and help him to clarify ideas and / or concepts and finally make him repeat the sentence without errors.

A slightly less formal style of correction than the previous one is usually given when students engage in activities that involve creative production in the foreign language. According to Hawkey (2006: 242-252), in this type of activities the teacher also has to correct the errors, however, he does it in a more cordial way; Informs the student of his mistake by saying for example: "I think that's not the right way to say what you want to express…". After this, the student should not necessarily repeat the sentence correctly. This type of correction, in most cases, helps maintain the atmosphere of group work and free conversation.

The other type of evaluation – organized feedback – occurs when the students have done some homework and it is sought that they themselves can see how many successes or failures they have had in their realization, in addition they are given ideas about how to solve their problems of communication in language Foreign. Harmer (2007) states that, in providing feedback to students, the teacher must first assess activity as an activity and not as a language exercise (feedback of content). If the teacher focused his assessment solely on the students' linguistic performance, the activity as such would lose all importance. Once the activity is evaluated by its nature, the teacher can then proceed to feedback form, in which he communicates to his students how successful his linguistic performance has been.

Probably the most difficult role to achieve for a teacher, is that of teacher as an organizer. According to Harmer (2007: 112), the fundamental purpose of the teacher when organizing an activity is to inform the students about what they are going to do, to give them clear instructions regarding their task, to carry out the activity as planned and to finally provide feedback when It has ended. At first glance this would not entail any major complications, however, an organizing role demands from the teacher great precision in his lesson plans and instructions given to students, since if students are not clear about what they are asked, they will not be able To perform the activity successfully.

Harmer (2007) offers an organizational model for an activity. In this the organization consists of three parts. In the first, the teacher makes an introduction of the activity that will allow students a familiarization with the subject to work. After the introduction phase, the teacher communicates to the students exactly what they should do and how they should do it; In some cases, it is necessary for the teacher to offer a demonstration of the exercise, to make it clearer. Finally, the teacher starts the activity, but not before asking the students again if they have understood the task they are asked to perform. During the activity the teacher does not intervene unless it is to correct some errors in a "cordial" way, to repeat the instructions or, if necessary, to motivate the students to work.

As for this last point, there are occasions in which the teacher needs to encourage students to participate, or make suggestions about how to proceed next to the performance of an activity, in this, their role would be to motivate. According to Harmer (2007) the role of motivator should be played with discretion, since if the teacher is too aggressive in his role, he may have more participation than the student himself and forget that his role is to help the learner only when necessary.

On the other hand, the teacher can adopt a participant role in the activities assigned to his students, acting as a student. However, as Hedge (2000) clarifies, this may not be advisable insofar as the teacher might have a tendency to dominate the activity and students would not only allow it, but would expect this to happen. It would then be the teacher's responsibility to prevent this from happening, and taking this into account, should not be allowed to participate, since this would not only help to improve the atmosphere of the class, but also give them the opportunity to practice together person with a higher level of foreign language than theirs.

So far, the importance of non-intervention of the teacher has been emphasized, especially in activities that are considered communicative. Despite this, it should be mentioned that although the teacher should avoid getting too involved in the tasks, his role in the classroom is not relegated to the level of observer. For Harmer (2007: 100) one of the roles that the teacher should adopt in a communicative instruction, is that of teacher as a resource. In this way, the teacher should be available for consultation whenever students require it.

There are other roles that the teacher adopts when students find, for example, in the development of a project. The students then come to the teacher as tutor, looking for guidance and academic advice. This role, which incorporates some elements of other roles such as the organizer, motivator and teacher as a refuse; Is more appropriate in an intermediate and advanced level of language learning, in which the teacher helps students clarify concepts, delimit the research or project and motivates them in the performance of tasks. (Harmer, 2007: 110).

Finally, Harmer (2007: 102) refers to the role of the teacher as a researcher, which is not necessarily related to the behaviour adopted by the teacher towards students in the classroom. As a researcher, the teacher wants to deepen his knowledge about the best ways of teaching a foreign language. For this, the teacher can attend seminars or training courses, which provide tools for their investigative work. In addition to this, the teacher can perform small experiments and observations within his class; try new techniques and activities that allows to reflect on the best way to defuse the job.

ACTIVITIES

Referring to the teacher's role in teaching a foreign language would not be possible without taking into account the nature of the activities developed by the teacher in the classroom. According to Ellis (2010) much of the research work on acquiring a foreign language has focused on acquiring adverb phrase; in this respect, one can find a series of proposals concerning the type of activities that best help the teacher to achieve the goal. One of these proposals promotes the use of "focused tasks" as a way to provide students with the opportunity to practice specific grammatical issues within a communicative context.

Interpretation activities belong to another of the proposals presented by Ellis. These activities seek to teach adverb phrase by having the students process the target structure through the interpretation of the input, and not through the produced output of the structure. According to Ellis (2010: 103) interpretation activities require students to process the structure to give meaning to the sentence or sentence that is shown to them, and this way the student establishes relationships between the structure and its meaning, in other words: to develop the task that asks them.

There are two kinds of interpretation activities: input utilization activities and structured input activities. According to Ellis (2010: 110) the first ones involve the design of activities in such a way that the characteristic to be taught appears frequently and prominently within the input given to the students. Such activities may consist of oral texts in which the structure of interest and exercises that can not be resolved unless the student has satisfactorily processed the structure. The structures of use of the input must provide the student with a sufficient amount of input in which the structure is highlighted in order to effectively impact the student's inter-language system.

The rationale for the use of input is that the acquisition of a foreign language can occur incidentally. Students may not be perfectly aware of the structure being taught, however they should note. So the main objective of this type of activities is to help perceive the structure making it stand out especially in the input. According to Ellis (2010) this type of activities can be used to reinforce the learning acquired in a more traditional way, to consolidate the effects of adverb phrase instruction.

On the other hand, in terms of structured input activities, Ellis (2010) points out that these activities are based on the understanding of adverb phrase and go beyond presenting the student with a type of enriched input of the structure, that by means of an instruction forces him to process it, that is, it goes beyond an act of stimulus-response. In a structured input activity the stimulus can be a written input in which the student can respond in various ways, for example, indicating truth or falsity or selecting the correct image; the most important thing is to respond by making minimal verbal use. Also, these activities can be sequenced in such a way that the main focus is on the meaning and only afterwards the form and function of the adverb phrase structure, whose errors and successes in the use are discussed towards the end of the activity.

The last proposal of activities for the teaching of grammar offered by Ellis (2010), refers to the so-called conscientization tasks, whose purpose is to develop an awareness at the level of understanding and not at the level of appreciation of adverb phrase structure. An awareness task makes language itself the content, inviting students to discover how that structure works for them as users of the language. Thus, an activity of this type attempts to focus attention on a single grammatical structure, which is explicitly described or explained in rule form. After this explanation and some analysis, the students will try to verbalize the rule that describes the adverb phrase rules making use of own linguistic resources in the foreign language, turning the grammar into a subject about which to communicate.

The foundation for this type of activity is that explicit knowledge facilitates an implicit, as it helps students to perceive the adverb phrase characteristics in the input and also to notice the distance between this and their own inter-language. Such awareness also helps to improve in students the formulations derived from their implicit knowledge and thus to correct their linguistic production. The activities in many cases depend on a material of support that facilitates the success of the same ones. The following is an explanation of the materials as well as the most representative materials of some methods.

MATERIALS

As for the materials used in teaching a language, there are many options, books designed for the course, images, videos, etc. Currently textbooks designed for a particular course are the most frequent material with its advantages and disadvantages, such as that the contents of a book does not take into account the real needs of students, or that the subjects are not relevant. However, the material to be used depends to a large extent on the preferred method.

In addition, there are factors that influence the choice of a particular material. McDonough and Shaw (2003:33) mention some as the role of English in the country and in school, teacher preference, available resources, number of students, availability of time, administrative factors, socio-cultural environment , among others.

Another important factor in choosing a material is what Hadfield and Hadfield call the "resource pyramid" (cited in Harmer, 2007: 176). At the top of this pyramid are people, since with people you can work in different ways, either by role playing or by exemplifying concepts with the body. At the base are the most complex resources such as language laboratories, videos, computers, etc. Because they are harder to get and are not available to everyone. Other components of the top-down pyramid are real-life objects, board, paper and pencil, books, cassette recorders, overhead projectors and photocopies.

Each method has some characteristic and representative materials according to the needs and beliefs of how English must be taught, as well as there are materials that adapt to the method. A board can be used to make a translation in the grammar-translation method, or to make an explanatory drawing in the natural method. Some examples of materials according to a particular method are as follows.

Grammar-Translation Method: Two materials are representative of this method. The first is the texts in the target language that the student must translate into his / her mother tongue, the themes of such texts do not take into account the student's context or issues of interest (Stevick, 1996: 72). The second material is represented by textbooks with information about the different adverb phrase rules the student must learn, explanations are full of technical terminology on grammar (Stern, 1990: 33).

Reading Method: The material is normally composed of reading books with texts according to the level of the student, the length of these texts varies between 3,000 and 5,000 words and the subjects they deal with are usually unrelated. These texts contain asides with the vocabulary that appears in the readings to facilitate their comprehension.

Audio-lingual method: As the name of the method indicates, the materials are oriented to produce an auditory stimulus as well as to encourage oral production. Recorded conversations are often used, while a textbook puts in writing what is spoken in the conversations and instructs the student to modify them.

Silent Method: The most representative material of this method are the Cusenaire Strips, originally designed for teaching mathematics. In the silent method they are used for various activities such as showing where the accent is placed in a sentence, or to explain the position of words in a sentence, as well as to represent objects of daily life, such as a clock, a telephone, etc. (Hutchinson, Waters, 1987: 26-30). Textbooks in addition to offering a translation of the new vocabulary, have pronunciation tables.

Community Approach: Since this method requires that students' oral output be reviewed, a recording mechanism is necessary to record conversations and reproduce them, so that the teacher can transcribe them and correct any errors.

Natural method: Usually the classes revolve around a text in the target language. If this text has expressions that the student does not understand, the teacher explains them in the target language by means of mime, paraphrase, synonyms or any other resource that does not imply a translation. Another common material in this method are images and tables with phonetic transcriptions.

Cognitive method: A textbook that conforms to the cognitive method has explanations of rules of grammar, including those regarding the adverb phrase, in relation to oral texts and written in the target language. These texts are related to the student's context or elements of real life.

SYLLABUS

The last of the elements that allow to give an account of a methodology is the syllabus, but before beginning with the definition of the same it is important to make a distinction between this and the term curriculum. Dubin and Olshtain (1991: 110) define curriculum as the guide that contains a general description of objectives determined according to a specific educational cultural philosophy. These philosophies provide a theoretical orientation on the language and its teaching. The curriculum is generally reflective of a number of policy trends at the national level.

On the other hand, Dubin and Olshtain (1991:132) define the syllabus as a more detailed and precise document in which the philosophy expressed in the curriculum is posed in the form of steps that point to more specific objectives at each level. That is to say that from a curriculum can be made different syllables that deal with audiences, needs, materials and concrete objectives. In the present research we deal with the syllabus as it is the way in which one can realize some designs of specific methods applied in the classroom.

According to Ur (1999: 99), a syllable is a list that specifies the elements that are taught in a given course. The components of this list may well be conceptual elements such as words, structures or themes, or indications oriented to the execution of the class, such as activities. These elements are usually ordered based on the relevance and the difficulty of them, the most necessary issues are the first to be addressed and the more complex are left to the end.

In addition, Nunan (1988) agrees that the syllabus is mainly concerned with the selection of content, as well as its organization and planning. Nunan further expresses that the syllable does not necessarily have to include elements like the materials or the method of teaching; If a syllable contains such elements, it depends exclusively on who designs it. Nunan adds that when the syllable contains the methodological aspects of teaching, it corresponds to a broad perspective syllabus; on the contrary, if the syllabus makes a separation between the content aspects and the methodology it is a syllable of limited perspective.

Candlin (1984, quoted in Hedge, 2000) states that the syllabus is more than a list of contents ordered by relevance, it is a window that accounts for particular social, educational and moral values. In this vein, syllables reflect beliefs about education and usually specify the type of methodology to be applied in the course.

Likewise, Ur (1999) explains that the syllable usually presents the objectives explicitly based on the selected conceptual and methodological elements. These objectives are explained in detail in the syllabus. On the other hand, the syllabus is considered as a public document that is available for both teachers and students, as well as for parents, academic peers, researchers, etc. As Ur (1999: 66-68) explains, it is common for syllables to contain a timeline that determines the amount of time that is allocated for each subject, the approach, method and materials to be used in classes. The thematic content of the syllabus is what determines its type and the methodology that is used in the class.

Yalden (1989: 151) agrees with Ur that the syllabus is not used exclusively by the teacher, rather it is a record of class objectives, methodology, resources and time allocated for each topic. On the other hand the syllabus fulfils the function of mediating between the needs and aspirations of the student and the content of the class. On the other hand, Yalden affirms that the syllabus must be explicit in the definition of its objectives and contents, and that it must be produced by teachers, which ensures that the final product is clear. In addition, the syllabus should be more or less explicit for students and should contain what is to be taught, rather than what is to be learned. Nunan (1988: 66) gives a description of the most common types of syllable and some of its most outstanding characteristics. Here is a brief description of the different types of syllables outlined by the author:

Grammar: Consists of a list of grammatical structures (eg simple present, comparative, superlative, etc.) as well as other elements (eg articles, plural and singular formation, complements, etc.). It is usually divided into sections according to the level of difficulty or importance. These structures are presented in a sequential manner and the domain of one subject is required before continuing with the next one.

Lexical: It consists of a list of lexical elements (girl, boy, go away) with their habitual placements, idiomatic expressions, etc. It is usually divided into sections by levels

Grammatical-lexical: In this type of syllable one may consider grammatical structures as lexical elements or mixed ones, in sections divided by units or as two separate aspects.

Situational: These syllables are based on the use of language in real life contexts, these uses are comparable to the contents that can be found in a book with phrases for tourists. The idea underlying this syllabus is that the student should be asked to talk about the activities he did last week instead of being asked to learn about the simple past (Nunan, 1988: 72). The sections have status titles or places such as "Eating a meal" or "In the street".

Content-based: It is similar to the situational syllabus however, titles are more general and focused on a particular content such as "Food" or "The Family" which generally contain a repertoire of vocabulary defined for each section. The idea of ​​this syllabus is that languages ​​are not subjects as such, such as mathematics, science or history, but language is a vehicle that allows communication about something else.

Notional: Notions are concepts that can be expressed with language. These concepts are very general and include topics such as numbers, time, places, colors. It can be equated to a list with elements of vocabulary like for example "the weather" or "places".

Functional-notional: Functions are what can be done with language, as opposed to the notions that are things that can be expressed. This type of syllabus is organized around the social functions of language. Some examples of the titles of this syllable can be "identifying", "promising", etc.

Procedural: These syllables focus on learning tasks that must be performed rather than knowledge about the language or its meaning. These tasks or actions are elements of daily life that are carried out as a result of the understanding of language, Nunan (1988) puts as an example the action of drawing a map following an instruction. This syllable requires the teacher to specify what is considered correct when completing the activity. Examples of these tasks may be to perform scientific experiments, storytelling, etc.

Process: In principle this syllabus is very similar to procedure-based as it focuses on activities or tasks such as using the telephone, or obtaining information; However, in this syllabus content is negotiated with students before and during the course. Instead of focusing on planning the purposes of a particular activity, the idea is to focus on the content students need as they emerge in the classroom (Prahbu, 1987: 66). A list with the contents of the class is given only at the end to recapitulate the topics seen throughout the course.

3.3 Methodology in adverb phrase teaching

This part tries to show the main methods in the adverb phrase teaching. Broadly, some have already been cited in the preceding lines and, in which they come, we will have the opportunity to extend ourselves more. I would like to emphasize that, in addition to the methods themselves, a series of elements, beginning with the very object of these: grammar. We need first of all, delimiting the concept and what we mean by it. Obviously, the teaching mechanisms could not be possible without the teacher and student figures, which in turn, are influenced by a specific learning context. Express mentions also require the materials available in the exciting work of adverb phrase teaching. There is no doubt that the study of how learners assimilate the adverb phrase is a fundamental source when designing methods of teaching adverb phrase. There are many and varied research on this subject, leaving a number of issues that raise controversy within and outside the doctrine. About all this we refer to below.

Teaching adverb phrase is an exciting task. As part of the teaching-learning process of adverb phrase, different opinions have been raised about its importance, suitability, modes of teaching, etc. From my experience as a teacher, there is a feeling of not much appreciation on the part of the students at the time of their explanation. I believe it is our job as teachers to be able to show it in a way that students are curious and interested in their study, being aware that any effort in acquiring useful knowledge is never empty.

The teaching of adverb phrase is fundamentally based on these four fields taking into account the particularities, characteristics and aspects of the same one. In this sense, we must note that adverb phrase is not an end in itself, but a means to make our language correct and effective. For this reason, we can say that language is a social system that we all share. A social system with rules and linguistic forms that are used for very determined purposes in specific contexts. Thus, the teaching of adverb phrase must necessarily be accompanied by the ability to interpret those social uses and situations. In other words, we should complement the more closed view of Saussure's language with a more dynamic and open one, which considers language as action. This view of language is typical of pragmatics as Hart (2005: 11-13) points out. In this way, the student would be able to improve his / her linguistic abilities and also his / her communicative abilities, knowing not only the grammar rules, but also being able to communicate correctly in adverb phrase. But with what kind of grammar one should carry out in teaching adverb phrase? Vanpatten (1992: 23-27), distinguishes ten types:

Normative: is one that defines the correct uses of the language by means of mandatory precepts.

Compared: studies the relationships that can be established between two or more languages.

Descriptive: it is one that makes a description of the language and its elements at a given time, regardless of its history or evolution over time.

Speculative: it was developed by scholastic philosophy and tried to explain linguistic phenomena through universal and constant principles.

Structural: studies the language based on the principle that all its elements maintain systematic relations between them.

Functional: focuses on the study of the functions that meet the different elements of the language.

General: seeks to establish principles common to all languages.

Generative: it is based on formulating a set of rules capable of generating all possible and acceptable sentences of a language. It has its origin in the standard theory of Noam Chomsky

Traditional: it is based on the ideas and contributions of the Greek philosophers about language and its different elements. Its development came to the first half of the twentieth century when it was replaced by structural grammar.

Transformational: considers that from a sentence scheme can be passed to another by applying certain rules.

In the doctrine, J. P. B. Allen (1987: 147-171) presents two more:

Formal or scientific grammar: the one that focuses on the study of the formal properties of language. It focuses on the language code, not the use of it.

Practical or pedagogical grammar: it is based on the elaboration of a series of rules and definitions whose main purpose is to help the student acquire a knowledge of the language and its use, sufficient for it to be able to express and communicate.

In the preceding paragraphs, one referred to the type of teaching of adverb phrase, based on a combination of grammatical and pragmatic elements, to give a global approach to the student, oriented towards the goal of allowing him to communicate correctly and effectively in different situations and contexts. Grammatical elements are conveniently treated and explained by grammars of this type. However, the social and communicative aspects, completely necessary to achieve a mutual understanding between the actors of any conversation, are outside the strict scope of the ones, reason why it is necessary the complement of a discipline able to deal with them in teaching of adverb phrase. And that discipline is none other than pragmatic. In this sense Borg (2003: 323) writes: "The pragmatics begins as an attempt to find the meaning of linguistic behaviour. In their analysis of language as action, the new discipline reaffirmed rationality, the principle of cooperation that explains that verbal interaction is possible … The pragmatics traced rows, paths and deviations and it did not stop to doubt that there was a balance between the grammar of languages ​​(consisting of vocabulary, the principles of combining words in sentences, the meanings of sentences) and the acts that can be fulfilled in speaking”. Leech  (2016: 109) explains the object and nature of this discipline: "Pragmatics is a different perspective that starts from the data offered by grammar and then takes into consideration the extra-linguistic elements that condition the effective use of language. It studies the conditions that determine the use of concrete utterances issued by specific speakers in specific communicative situations and their interpretation by the recipients. We do not mean to say that pragmatics can or should substitute for adverb phrase reflection: the explanations that both offer should be understood as complementary. "

Input-centric approaches

The Input Hypothesis is the central part of the natural approach of acquisition of English as a second language, which consists of several hypotheses:

– Hypothesis 1: acquisition or learning. According to this hypothesis, there are two independent modes of developing skills regarding adverb phrase teaching and learning process:

A) Acquisition: it is an unconscious process identical in all the important details that occurs with the children who acquire their L1.

B) Learning: it is the conscious process that results in knowing a language.

– Hypothesis 2: the natural order. According to Krashen (1985), this hypothesis was first enunciated by Corder (1967). It states that we acquire the language rules in a predetermined order. Thus, some rules tend to be acquired before others. This order does not depend on their simplicity and on the order in which they are taught to the student.

– Hypothesis 3: the monitor. This hypothesis establishes how acquisition and learning are used when putting them into practice. Our ability to pronounce in English grammar comes from an acquired competence, derived from a subconscious knowledge. Learning the adverb phrase, seen as a conscious knowledge, performs a function of control, supervision, monitoring. Thus, in order to learn, corrections are necessary in order to change the result of knowledge acquired before or after (self-correction) of speaking or writing. According to Krashen (1985: 55), it is necessary to have two conditions for compliance with the hypothesis based on monitoring: the practitioner must be consciously concerned about the correctness of his own constructions and must also know the rules that regulate them. In practice, it is difficult for both conditions to be present.

– Hypothesis 4: Input. According to this hypothesis, there is only one way of acquiring language: by understanding messages or by receiving messages that can be understood. Thus, we advance in the knowledge of adverb phrase through the natural order (hypothesis 2) understanding the information that comes to us and contains structures belonging to the next stage of our cognitive development. Thus, we are able to understand language that contains concepts not acquired through context, which includes extra-linguistic information, our knowledge of the world and our assimilated linguistic competence.

This hypothesis has two corollaries:

Speech is the result of the acquisition of knowledge, not its cause. It can not be taught to speak, but arises as a result of the process of developing competence by understanding the information that reaches the receiver.

If the information transmitted is understood, and if sufficient, the adverb phrase is also included in it. The teacher thus does not need to teach the following grammatical structure in a deliberate way according to the natural order, since this has already been given in adequate quantities, upon receiving the student enough information that he can understand.

In this way, the information given to the student becomes the essential environmental element, because it does not only assimilate what it listens to, but it gives a very significant contribution of the internal processor of language. In this sense, it should be noted that not all information given to the receiver is processed for acquisition.

According to Krashen (1985), the idea that we all acquire language in a single way does not seem very much in accord with the innate individual peculiarity of all of us. There is evidence of differences between people in many ways, which affect the way language is acquired. However, there are certain aspects that we all do in the same way and some functions that we acquire identically.

According to Krashen (1985), there is ample evidence confirming this Hypothesis, which supports the position of Chomsky (1975: 72), according to which there is uniformity in the language faculty, so that the acquisition of this occurs in a similar way for all people. Differences in the surface can be seen – different sources of understandable information, different strategies to obtain this information, different messages, different languages ​​- but in the background, the mental organ of which Chomsky (1975) speaks produces a basic result, a human language in the same way.

– Hypothesis 5: the affective filter

Understandable information is necessary for language acquisition, but it is not enough. The receiver needs to be open upon arrival of this information. The affective filter is a mental barrier that prevents the receiver from fully using all the information that is received for language acquisition. When this filter is operational, the receiver can understand what it hears and reads, but this information will not reach the language acquisition device (LAD). This occurs when the receiver is not motivated, has a lack of self-confidence, is anxious, when he or she adopts a defensive position, or when he or she considers that the class of the adverb phrase exposes its weaknesses. When the filter is not operational, the receiver is not concerned about the possibility of making errors in language acquisition and considers itself a potential member of the group that will speak that language. Krashen (1985) considers that the filter is totally deactivated when the receiver is so concentrated in the information that arrives to him, that he forgets at times that he is listening or reading a different language.

We can summarize the five hypotheses as follows: we acquire the adverb phrase only if we obtain information that we can understand and if the affective filters are not activated to allow that information to be processed. As we saw, when the affective filter is deactivated and the information that reaches the receiver is understandable, the acquisition of adverb phrase is inevitable. For all this, we can affirm the presence of understandable information is the fundamental factor of acquisition of adverb phrase. Other factors serve as a stimulus or aid to such acquisition only if they contribute to making that information comprehensible and the affective filter is disabled.

The structured input

Research carried out in the last decade of the twentieth century has shown that the students' attention to the information they receive (input) can be modified through teaching. VanPatten (1992: 23-27) has proposed a model of acquisition of adverb phrase based on three procedures: the first one regarding the processing of the input, the second one oriented to the student's grammatical development and the third one to the output or production of the adverb phrase. In relation to the first, (processing instruction), VanPatten proposes to alter the strategies of the students to process the information that they are receiving. Following its acquisition model divided into three procedures, the traditional system focuses on the third, directed to the output or production of the adverb phrase. However, in the teaching directed to structured input proposed by VanPatten, the teacher intervenes in the linguistic processing of students through strategies of interpretation that are practiced in different activities. Therefore, the teaching is based on manipulating the processing mechanisms of the learner's English grammar (the first group of processes).

A series of studies comparing traditional teaching and teaching using VanPatten’s model have demonstrated the validity of this latter method. In the adverb phrase production tests, students who used the structured input method demonstrated the same knowledge about the grammatical aspects as the group that used the traditional method. Regarding interpretation tests, the group with the VanPatten method showed more competition.

In the model of structured input teaching, the grammar explanation is followed by activities centred on the same. Students should not produce the studied grammatical structure. This type of instruction is called structured input since the input or information the receiver receives is manipulated to bring out specific grammatical information. VanPatten differentiates six fundamental aspects to carry out such activities of manipulation of the input:

Focus teaching on a single object. The teacher carries out a brief explanation of the object of his teaching, followed by activities centred on it. In this way, the perception of the structure taught, is given in a more simple and affordable way for the receiver.

Focus must be on meaning. The activities performed after the explanation by the teacher, are focused on the meaning and not on the form, to promote the communication pathways. It is recommended to choose topics that are known and of interest to students.

Begin with phrases in order to reach the connected speech. The activities begin with oral or written phrases, followed by phrases that lead to the beginning of a related speech or conversation.

Use oral and written input. Activities can include oral information (radio, television, documentaries, etc.) and written (newspapers, magazines, websites, etc.)

Have the student interact with the input. It is that the student understands the input, and from there, is able to continue the sense of the speech.

Consider the mechanisms of psycholinguistic processing. It is about activating the mechanisms of linguistic processing of students. It is sought that the attention during processing is directed to the adverb phrase structure to be taught. For this, a combination of oral and written input is used, in different order. It tends not to use explicit subjects to make the student focus on the verb ending.

Regarding the processing of the input (IP) or information that reaches the receiver, VanPatten refers to it in terms of meaning. For him, the processing of information has to result in obtaining a meaning that makes it understandable. That is their function. However, there are different types of meaning (complete, referential, relational, relative to form, etc.). VanPatten says in this regard that the variety in quantity and types of meaning will dictate the how and also when an element is processed. The processing of information based on the concept of meaning is a contradiction due to the abundant list of structural models that rely on grammatical and lexical information as a result of this procedure (Frazier, Clifton, 1996: 19).

The textual enhancement

It is a concept within the theories of acquiring adverb phrase, introduced by Mike Sharwood Smith (1993: 165-179). This aspect points out ways in which the teacher will highlight specific aspects of adverb phrase for a better acquisition by the receivers. This concept can be contrasted with similar but not identical terms such as the teacher's speech, where the main objective is to make the information understandable and where the acquisition is not necessarily intended or, at least, not the main motivation.

The textual enhancement includes a series of techniques such as slowing the rhythm of speech, exaggerated use of pronunciations and intonations, increased repetition of words and phrases, use of gestures, use of bold and underscore in texts, viewing Of videos and images, etc. It also includes the use of more traditional and explicit techniques attracting the apprentice's attention to how the adverb phrase system works by discussing specific aspects of adverb phrase and its use. Sharwood Smith (1991, 1993) distinguishes between external textual enhancement (based on the examples above) and internal textual enhancement, where particular aspects of adverb phrase stand out in a given phase as a result of the natural development of the learner escaping his control, not due to outside intervention. An advantage of this method may be that the learner is prevented from having to continually produce the desired grammatical goal.

Ellis (2006: 83-107) tells us about the limitations of this method, based on the fact that it may not be appropriate for young learners or for those who prefer to learn by doing. In addition, it can be used only with beginners if the learner's is used as a means to solve the activities. This method of adverb phrase is therefore not an alternative to communicative activities, but only a supplement to them. Marín (2012) affirms that with this method you can learn the highlighted forms are those concrete assumptions, but it is necessary that the student learn to use them in different situations and areas so that these assumptions should be supplemented with other activities. In addition, Marín continues (2012), the highlighted forms can be perceived in a different way by each learner.

The teaching of adverb phrase from context and discourse

It is convenient to delve a bit more into the relationship between adverb phrase and context in the sense of trying to answer the question of whether it is possible to teach it through discourse. Supporters of this position claim that it is possible to learn adverb phrase beyond the strict consideration of grammatical forms, adopting a very broad perspective of meaning within a given context.

In textbooks, adverb phrase often comes out of context. Apprentices are often given sentences or individual sentences, outside a contextual framework. These activities are designed to work the formal, purely grammatical aspects of the language. But in addition to the formal aspects, the teaching of adverb phrase has to try to explain the functions of the same. To carry out this task, it is essential to equip adverb phrase activities with a context, whereby language is susceptible to carry out its primary function: that of communication. As teachers, we must help learners to understand that effective communication requires a harmony between the functional interpretation of adverb phrase and its correct formal use, providing activities that develop the relationship between grammatical elements and the discursive context in which they act (Halliday, 1985: 163). In a communicative act, adverb phrase and context are so closely related that correct grammatical choices can only be made in relation to the context and purpose of communication. In this sense, we can say that only a few grammatical norms can function fully without the influence of context.

Thus, giving students the opportunity to learn adverb phrase within a discourse, they can learn the functions of the grammatical elements, getting to know how and why there are alternative ways to express different meanings. In the words of Morgan (1975: 289-303): “The methodology of teaching adverb phrase based on the discourse allows to study a great variety of forms and also allows to develop the creative aspect, that is to say the output, through exercises of summary, composition or solution of textual problems”. Among the detractors of the teaching of adverb phrase through discourse, the idea is based that with this method is given more preponderance to pragmatics than to linguistics.

One refers to this as: "Pragmatics studies our way of producing meaning through the language and principles that regulate linguistic behaviours dedicated to communication." M. Bajtin (1995: 222) says "The pragmatics aims at the analysis of all the principles, knowledge and strategies that constitute communicative competence and that determine the effective use of language, based on a stable set of factors that are part of the enunciative act, that takes values ​​in each case, but that respond to the same structure."

In our own words, we could say that pragmatics deals with how the aspects that surround us influence the interpretation of meaning. Extra-linguistic aspects of any kind: personal relationships, communicative situations, moods, values, customs and traditions, etc. Pragmatics does not disdain the information offered by adverb phrase, but uses it when it comes to addressing these extra-linguistic elements. In their relationship, one could say that adverb phrase offers formal, while pragmatic, functional approaches. What makes them accomplices of the search for an open, variable, broad, total communication.

That should be the vision of the language we should teach a dynamic, integrative vision of the normative aspects and those based on the specific context in which the communicative act takes place. Adverb phrase must be shown as a means to an end, which is none other than effective communication, taking into account not only what is communicated to us, but also what we are meant to communicate. On many occasions, misunderstandings occur, due precisely to the lack of capacity to understand the intentions, moods, social uses, etc. of those who speak to us. And that is the great contribution that is given by the context. We see its enormous importance from the point of view of the deciphering of meaning. A language can not be understood and fully assimilated taking into account only the purely formal aspects, strictly academic-scientific. With it, come different areas of action or application (contexts), in which the language is going to be executed. Goodwin and Duranti (1992: 1-42) define context as follows: "The notion of context implies a fundamental juxtaposition of two entities: a central event and a sphere of action within which the event is inscribed." One conclude this section by answering this question, Not with my own words, but with others with which we are in complete agreement: "So, even at the risk of losing much of the prestige that seems to be linked to the scientific, it may be interesting to re-consider language as a concept Humanistic, without separating it from the realities of use, of the idiomatic situations, without depriving it of all the psychic and affective contents, which, although they make it seem a dubious and disconcerting object of scientific analysis, at least give us back a multidimensional, less rigid image , more complete and truthful of its nature. "

Output-focused approaches

As one has seen in the preceding pages, input-centred approaches consider that if adverb phrase learners are exposed to sufficient amounts of input that they can understand in a non-stressful situation and with deactivated affective filters, they will be able to acquire and learn the adverb phrase. But what happens, therefore, to the output or output of the student? Is the assimilation of understandable information enough for the acquisition of the language to take place?

Output-focused approaches address these issues, placing the emphasis on the acquisition of adverb phrase.

• The studies carried out have shown that the processing of the input comprehensible by the learner over a period of time, leads to considerable fluency in the adverb phrase domain. But, at the same time, they find that this is not enough to be able to reach a complete fluency and competence of said language.

Because of this situation, Merrill Swain developed the Output Hypothesis, a theory of acquisition of adverb phrase according to which apprentices can not achieve full grammatical competence only with input processing that they can understand, This should occur, they must produce the spoken English grammar. This hypothesis is based on her research work with a group of Canadian university students immersed in French. In this paper, Swain (1995: 125-144) shows how, despite the enormous amounts of input received over the years, and had reached a certain degree of fluency, students continued to make grammatical errors in adverb phrase teaching and learning process. However, they still committed syntactic and grammatical errors in this language, which meant that they had not fully acquired adverb phrase. The information obtained from these studies led scholars to question comprehensible input as the only causal factor in the acquisition of adverb phrase. Swain concluded that the missing element was production or output, which he called understandable output, which later led to the production of the Output Hypothesis. In other words, he considered that the lack of fluency could be due to the fact that the students had not sufficiently practiced adverb phrase (Swain, 1985: 76-78). In the context of this scenario, we turn to the three approaches focused on output.

The interactional feedback

Interactional feedback occurs naturally in the conversation when the members of a conversation try to find meaning in their interaction by correcting any errors that may occur. The main function, then, is to correct the errors that arise in communication, for example when the teacher responds to the mistakes of the learner. This interactional error correction may have a negative evidence focus, providing the learner with the example that something in their output is not grammatically correct or acceptable (Leeman, 2003: 37) or positive evidence, trying to get the learner to assimilate The correct form, giving you the necessary information. In both cases, it is an implicit feedback, such as a shift in the conversation, being much less intrusive to the object of communication, than an explicit response to error. We can distinguish two types of strategies:

Recast: this is a form of negative feedback that has been defined by Long and Robinson (1998): "is a corrective reformulation of the pronunciation of an apprentice that separates the same from the intended meaning." It is a repetition of the meaning of the sentence using the correct form, until the learner is able to express correctly.

This type of feedback facilitates the learner to focus on the wrong form in a way that understandable input can not achieve. Research has shown that reformulations are by far the most frequent type of interactional feedback (Lyster, 1998: 51-58).

A number of research papers (Hanz, 2002: 543-572; Otha, 2000) consider utility reformulations. However, others point out that they are not as effective as other forms of feedback.

Elicitation: according to Lyster (1998), it is a warning or suggestion with which the teacher urges the learner to reformulate their own mistakes without stating that an error has occurred or suggesting where it may be. The teacher's response can be interpreted as an indication that the expression is incorrect or as a continuation of the conversation, in the form of a clarification of discourse.

As Marín (2012) agreed, "to provoke self-correction of the learner, directly or indirectly … it is necessary to open a process similar to the negotiation of meaning that occurs in a conversation. The main purpose of the notice or suggestion is to develop the apprentice's awareness of the presence of some error and, from there, to try to correct it. We agree with Marcos Marin in his statement that for self-correction to work properly, requires the student's prior knowledge of adverb phrase rules, so they must be taught explicitly. Another mechanism of error correction is meta-linguistic feedback which is defined by Lyster and Ranta (1997): "are comments, information or questions regarding the correct form of expression of the student, without explicitly providing the correct form." Tedick and Gortari (1998: 1-6), distinguieshed other three error corrections, respectively:

– Explicit corrections: when the teacher explicitly indicates that the expression used is incorrect, providing the correct form.

– Clarifications: by using phrases like "forgive?" or "I do not understand", the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood or that the expression contains some error, so a repetition or reformulation is necessary by part of the apprentice.

– Repetitions: in this case, the teacher repeats the error of the student, using an intonation that attracts the attention of the learner.

In relation to the correction of writings, this can not be as dynamic as verbal correction. However brief these are, it requires the teacher to read, correct and explain to the student. This explanation must be understandable, becoming an input on its output.

By its very nature, it is true that the reformulation acquires preponderance over provocation within the realm of written corrections. Interactive feedback is an essential tool in the process of learning adverb phrase, since it allows the identification, application of the norm and correction of the errors that separate the learners from their cognitive development in order to culminate with a fluent domain of the language as object of study. Unfortunately, we live in a time when the classrooms tend to become crowded, with the consequent detriment of the time available for each student, which results in a very important loss in the quality of teaching.

Structured adverb phrase focused tasks

The teaching of adverb phrase can not be ignored in the acquisition of English as a second language. The underlying function of this is to help learners to internalize the structures taught in a way that they can be used in daily communication. To this end, students are given opportunities to practice these structures, first under controlled conditions and then under more natural communicative conditions. According to Ellis (2002: 172), different types of practice can be distinguished:

– Mechanics: consists of several types of rigidly controlled activities such as substitution exercises.

– Contextualized: this is a practice that is still controlled, but it involves an attempt to encourage learners to relate form to meaning, showing how structures are used in everyday situations.

– Communicative: involves several types of completion-type activities, which require learners to attempt to engage in authentic communications.

Regardless of the type of practice to be used, Ellis (2002: 168) gives five features that structured grammatical focus tasks should have:

– An attempt is made to isolate a specific linguistic feature to focus attention on it.

– The trainees are provided with data that illustrate the characteristics of the linguistic trait as well as explicit norms describing or explaining it.

– The trainees are expected to make an intellectual effort to understand the linguistic trait chosen.

– The lack of understanding or partial understanding of the linguistic trait by the trainees leads to clarification by the trainer through more data, descriptions and explanations.

– Apprentices can be asked to express the grammatical rule by describing the grammatical structure.

The main purpose of these tasks is to develop an explicit knowledge of adverb phrase. However, these tasks do not imply a repetition of the learner's output. This is because it is not a matter of training the student to use the structure correctly, but simply to help him or her know something about it. Rutherford and Sharwood-Smith (1985) stated that structured tasks are considered as potential facilitators for acquiring linguistic competence, but have nothing to do with using that same competence to achieve specific communication goals or achieve a Level of fluidity in the use of adverb phrase.

The general practice of adverb phrase is directed to the acquisition of implicit knowledge of a grammatical structure, that type of knowledge needed to use a structure without any effort to maintain communication.

The structured tasks of grammatical focus, as we have said above, are oriented to the formation of an explicit knowledge, the type of intellectual knowledge that anyone can obtain. It is clear that the construction of explicit representations of grammatical structures has a nature of limited use. It can sometimes help the learner to express himself in certain types of tests. It can also be useful for improving the way you plan your speech, such as when we analyze our expressions to improve them in a public context. However, structured grammatical focus tasks do not have much use in everyday language use. As Ellis considered, "explicit knowledge is not very useful for communication." That is why we need to achieve implicit knowledge.

According to Ellis, for the acquisition of implicit knowledge, three processes are needed:

– Realize: the learner becomes aware of the presence of a linguistic feature in the input, even if he had previously ignored it.

– Compare: the apprentice compares the linguistic characteristic identified in the input, with its own minded grammar, recording the existence of a gap between the input and its own grammar.

– Integrate: the learner integrates a representation of the new linguistic characteristic in his mental grammar.

The tasks of collaborative output

In this type of task, learners improve their competence in completing tasks assigned through the interaction between the different members of a group working together. An example of such tasks is the dictogloss. It is a technique of teaching the language used to teach adverb phrase structures. The activity consists in the oral reading of a text at a normal speed, while the students divided into groups take notes. Afterwards, students in their groups should prepare a summary using the correct grammatical forms. Each group must present their work to the rest of the class.

These tasks encourage learners to focus on form, but also on meaning, while encouraging communication, having to work in groups.

These are very useful activities where learners must produce while developing their skills of understanding and communication with members of their group, taking into account not only the grammatical forms to be reconstructed, but the meaning of the text read. It is accepted by the doctrine in general, the meta-linguistic function of the output (Swain, 1995: 132). This function (conscious reflection) allows the learner to reflect on their own language. What are needed are tasks that encourage reflection on the form of language, not forgetting the task of obtaining meaning .

The learners, in a communicative context, negotiate a meaning, but the content of that negotiation is a linguistic form. When you generate a text, you reflect on it, since you must know if the forms are correct. The continuous reflection on its production, produces a knowledge about the language.

Adverb phrase and its methodology

The explicit teaching of adverb phrase has undergone variations over time. It went from grammatical translation to grammar based on the language and its sounds. From this he turned to cognitive grammar which, in turn, gave way to the communicative methods of his teaching. The method of grammatical translation was based on grammatical skills, especially in the ability to use grammatical terminology to describe different morphological and syntactic principles of English grammar and those of adverb phrase. Because of the implementation of language and audio methods, grammatical rules ceased to represent an essential part of teaching adverb phrase. However, oral input to learners in the form of specific dialogues and activities was well structured, following strict grammatical order according to the curriculum.

The cognitive method influenced the need for students to understand the rules for using grammatical forms of adverb phrase before attempting to use them to communicate. With the popularity of several communicative methods in the United States and Europe, the predominant function of adverb phrase was questioned. In most of these methods, grammatical instruction was reduced to a secondary role, with communicative activities occupying the main role. This was supported by some of the research studies carried out.

Criticisms of the teaching of adverb phrase based on an important grammatical burden are due in part to the hypothesis of Krashen's monitor, which states that the role of adverb phrase should be reduced to that of its monitoring. According to Krashen, different studies show that an explicit knowledge of grammatical forms and structures is not a necessary or sufficient condition for their acquisition. Similarly, Garrett (1986: 133-148) argues that grammatical competence should be a part of communicative competence, but learning adverb phrase does not seem to help students achieve any of them.

Faced with critical positions on the teaching of adverb phrase in the acquisition of adverb phrase, Krahnke (1985: 591-603) argues that much of the effort invested in the critique of adverb phrase teaching should be better used in persuading grammarians, having a new and useful role in teaching adverb phrase. To this same line is adhered Terrell (1991). According to Terrell (1991: 55), research to date has not demonstrated that explicit adverb phrase teaching is an important factor in adverb phrase acquisition. It recognizes that it can be useful by speeding up the procurement process and also helping apprentices to avoid certain production strategies such as omission or reduction. Terrell (1991: 62) affirms the existence of ways in which the instruction of the grammar can help to the acquisition of adverb phrase:

As an organizing element advancing knowledge, which has repercussions, in helping the learner to better understand the input.

As a way to focus on the form-meaning relationship in communicative activities.

Monitoring of grammatical forms can help the acquisition of adverb phrase, if it is possible for learners to acquire their own output. As we have seen throughout this work, the instruction of adverb phrase helps the acquisition of adverb phrase, highlighting concrete forms and impelling learners to establish connections between form and meaning.

The natural method of teaching adverb phrase

Origin, objectives and principles.

One has seen some aspects of this teaching method previously on input-focused approaches. As one said, the natural method is a method of teaching adverb phrase, which comprises five hypotheses, of which the relative to the input, becomes the most important. This method was originally created by Terrell in 1977. Terrell wanted to develop a method of teaching adverb phrase, using the different natural studies that had been carried out. After the initial formulation, he began working with Krashen to develop the more theoretical aspects. Both published the result of their collaboration in 1983: The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom.

This natural method was completely different from what was being applied in the 1970s in the United States, the audio-lingual method. This consisted essentially of written activities and correction of errors, which disappeared practically with the natural method.

The main objective of this method is to develop the communicative skills, being its main field of application the one of the beginners.

This method presents a set of principles that can be applied to a wide variety of apprentices and teaching situations. Specific objectives will depend on the specific context in which the method is being used. Terrell (1983) highlights three basic principles:

Teaching must focus on meaning and not on form.

Oral production is slow, and should not be forced.

The beginning of such production is a process that follows natural stages: "yes" or "no" answers, single word answers, generation of word lists, short sentences and complete sentences.

Lessons made through the natural method focus on understanding the messages in adverb phrase, giving little relevance to the correction of errors and to the conscious learning of grammar rules. This method also emphasizes learning a broad vocabulary as a basis on which to support grammatical structures.

Stages and implementation of activities in the classroom

Terrell (1983) states that apprentices must pass three stages in their process of acquiring a language: comprehension, early speech, and emergency discourse. At the comprehension stage, emphasis should be placed on learners' vocabulary. It is that this vocabulary is part of his lasting memory. According to their theory, students will begin to produce a discourse only when a sufficient amount of language has been assimilated through an input of communicative nature. When this happens, learners enter the second phase, of early speech, in which students answer simple questions, using a few words or sentence sentences, being able to complete simple activities. In the last stage, or the emergency speech, learners are already taking part in activities that require more advanced language, such as real simulation and problem solving activities.

Although Terrell created this method without relying on a specific theoretical model, his later collaboration with Krashen led him to be seen often as an application of language teaching based on the hypothesis of the latter's monitor. However, there are differences between the two approaches: Terrell gives more importance to the acquisition of adverb phrase than Krashen. The latter's hypothesis states that conscious learning has no effect on the learner's ability to generate a new language, while Terrell believes that conscious learning of grammatical rules can be beneficial.

On the other hand, Terrell through a series of activities (1983), aims to achieve a development of oral communication of apprentices. The real core of his method is these activities, (1983: 97). It defines activities as follows, "by activity, we mean a wide variety of events, which have a purpose other than the practice of conscious grammar". These are activities of a nature different from those based on an audiolingual character or those oriented to cognitive learning. For the acquisition of adverb phrase to be possible, the topics used in each activity must be interesting and meaningful, so that the attention of the trainees is focused on pronunciation and not on form. It is precisely through acquisition activities, as the teacher introduces new vocabulary, provides an understandable input, creates opportunities for the actual production of the students and generates a feeling of group, unity and cohesion that contributes to maintain the affective filter at minimum levels .

Each activity should be based on a specific situation or theme, (how to order food in a restaurant). The activity may sometimes have a particular shape or structure, which must be used repeatedly during the course of the activity. The purpose of this activity is to provide an understandable input, not to teach a specific structure.

Apprentices play an active role in acquiring an input they can understand. When they do not understand something, they must know how to regulate the input they are given. Each language has ways of asking for clarification, asking repeat speakers, speaking more slowly, explaining in more detail. If these communication tools are taught in the early stages of adverb phrase acquisition, learners will have more means to control their own input.

It is also important to emphasize that the level of difficulty of the content of the activity must be previously adjusted. If students receive too much vocabulary or structures at the same time, they waste time trying to translate instead of participating in the conversation.

Finally, the teacher must be aware of whether the students understand what is being discussed. It is not necessary to check that each sentence is understood. It is a question of applying comprehension check techniques: direct questions, observation of whether verbal or non-verbal reactions or responses denote comprehension, etc., verifying that learners follow the course of the lesson. The effectiveness of the acquisition of adverb phrase can be measured by the interest of the students making comments or questions regarding the subject being treated.

Terrell distinguishes four types of activities:

– Of affective-humanistic character: these activities try to put into practice the feelings of the apprentices, their opinions, desires, reactions, ideas and experiences. These activities are based on their contents. Six are distinguished:

Dialogues: the use of open dialogues allows learners, especially in their early stages, to produce beyond their own capacity. The dialogues will be short and interesting, containing a series of routines and patterns of easy assimilation. In addition, being open dialogues, the learner can use their creativity. The function of these dialogues is to develop the student's ability to participate in them more solvency, sounding in a more natural and fluid way. The mastery of these dialogues is especially beneficial for beginners and intermediate students when it comes to interacting in conversations.

Interviews: In this type of activity, students are divided into pairs, giving them some questions to ask their peers. In the initial stages of acquisition, learners may use a single word or short phrase. The most appropriate interviews are those that focus on interesting events in the lives of students. There are different formats of interviews, (pretending to be famous people, interviews of the teacher to the students, among the students themselves, etc.). Interviews should integrate a situation and clear themes. In addition, they can revolve around a particular grammatical structure, (past, future, subjunctive, etc.). If the conversation is interesting, grammatical aspects will not interfere with communication and activity will be successful. Interviews are very useful for the adverb phrase acquisition process in several ways: they help reduce the effects of the affective filter, provide meaningful interaction, give learners the opportunity to use routines and patterns, which help the acquisition of the adverb phrase in an indirect way. In addition, they provide understandable input through the language of the student during the interview and the teacher's speech in the follow-up of the activity.

Sort of preferences: consists of a statement, followed by three or four possible answers. Students must respond according to their preferences. The main objective of this activity is the conversation that occurs later between the teacher and the apprentice about the created list. In it, the students receive input, as well as have the possibility to express themselves in the adverb phrase.

Creating lists and tables: Building tables of information about students in a particular class, for example, can serve as a basis for interesting discussions. The teacher can create a table with the weekly routines of class members. When the table is finished, it can be used to ask questions and as a basis for some discussion depending on the level of the trainees.

Sharing information from each other: these activities simply provide personal information as a source for holding conversations or comments expressing affirmations or opinions about any topic. In the subsequent conversation, the teacher will provide the understandable input: what do you drink for breakfast? Why is coffee so popular in the mornings? In which countries does coffee not so popular?

Use of the imagination: these are activities in which students are asked to imagine a situation, a person, resulting in a situation of interaction. After a certain time, learners should describe what they saw and felt. Another technique is to ask the students to close their eyes and imagine a pleasant or unpleasant place. After completing their visualizations, students should describe what they imagined to the class or to small groups if they are working in this way. Another very common activity is to imagine a hypothetical situation and ask the students what happened in it. For example, the teacher may ask the student to talk to Lebron James and give him advice on how to be a basketball star. In these activities, the students are divided into groups in the initial part of the activity and, then, the teacher, continues the activity with the whole class. 'The most important thing about this type of activity is that the students are interested in the experiences of others and that the didactics focuses on the chosen subjects.

Problem Solving: The main characteristic of this type of activity is that student attention is focused on finding the right answer to a question, problem or situation. Language is used to present the problem and solve it. These activities are only successful if students find them interesting, either because they are useful or because they enjoy doing them. The understandable input in this type of activities is provided in different ways: normally the teacher transmits it explaining how to solve the problems raised. Examples of activities of this type are specific tasks and series of activities, tables, charts and maps, advertisements for newspapers, magazines, etc.

Games: these are mechanisms to stimulate interest and sometimes to reward the performance of other tasks less entertaining. For Terrell (1983), games can serve very well as the basis of an activity that serves for the acquisition of adverb phrase, and not as a reward. This is because they can provide an understandable input. Students are usually interested in the outcome of the game, with interest being most of the time focused on the game itself, rather than language. There are many types of games that can encourage the acquisition of adverb phrase. For example, a simple one is to give learners a list of descriptions of themselves, having to find the companion of each description.

Content: these are activities in which the purpose is to learn something new in adverb phrase. Examples are slides, individual reports, presentations, music, movies, television reports, news, readings and discussions about any part of the English grammar and its culture.

These activities are used in all language classes. However, the natural method uses them differently. In the case of games, it is not simply enjoyable activities, used as rewards. In addition, they are always presented in adverb phrase teaching and learning process. Finally, they can be used much earlier than in other models, since in the natural model, beginners are not required to produce complete sentences without errors.

The contemplative method of teaching adverb phrase

One would mention a method of teaching, the contemplative, which is not specific to the teaching adverb phrase. However, by its nature and its applications, we consider it interesting to address it, even succinctly.

The contemplative method of teaching comprises a series of mechanisms for cultivating awareness, concentration and perception. The contemplation exercise helps to foster additional ways of knowing that complement the rational methods of traditional liberal arts education. "Inviting the contemplative simply includes the natural human capacity to know through silence, introspection, deep pondering, contemplating, witnessing the contents of our consciousness. These contents cultivate a profound technology of knowledge ", according to Hart (2005: 11-13).

The foundation of contemplative teaching is precisely in the attempt to encourage and help develop the capacity for awareness, concentration and perception. To carry out this task, instruments such as newspapers, music, art, poetry, dialogues, questions and guided meditation are used. In the classroom, these forms of knowledge are used as pedagogical practices in order to learn through refined attention. These mechanisms counteract the continual distractions of our daily lives. For this reason, it can be affirmed that the creative teaching methods that integrate the practice of contemplation, are able to satisfy the needs of the students of today. The contemplative method of education includes the same components found in other educational systems: learning theory, curriculum, pedagogy and evaluation of learning. However, there is a special emphasis on open awareness, which is implemented to all parts of the education system.

Theory of contemplative learning

Within this educational method, the theory of learning based on a contemplative tradition stands out. This model was inspired by a Buddhist approach to learning that identifies four stages: study, contemplation, meditation, and community-based action. In this model, the different stages are interconnected and related, so there is no marked distinction between them.

Study: this is the first phase of contemplative learning. It involves receiving and storing information not known by means such as reading or presentations. By receiving the information, the student is given a material that needs to be assimilated and understood, a conceptual framework to think about the corresponding topic. Materials are considered to have been really studied only when they have been memorized and interpreted meaningfully.

Contemplation: it requires a deep reflection on the corresponding contents. This contemplation can be done in different ways. A natural way to increase interest with a particular subject is to make it personal. Education can help learners to value other perspectives by considering different points of view. The contemplative method provides a specific mode of taking a perspective, accustoming the mind to being flexible, changing according to its own nature. In the field of contemplative learning, changing perspectives becomes a natural act.

Meditation: In this third phase, meditation brings an exceptional awareness of the process of addressing a specific topic. Meditative training is a mode of learning that entails personal instruction, according to which it is possible to maintain attention on a subject while preserving clarity. By taking a straight posture in the chair and focusing attention for a few minutes, the mind can relax. When mental relaxation is combined with constant attention, consciousness is less obstructed. The practice of combining relaxation with awareness leads to a variety of experiences.

"With the continued practice of meditation, the natural tendency of the person to think and imagine superficially becomes a way of thinking with intent, taking a break from thought," Grossenbacher and Parking (2006: 4). By combining intellectual study and contemplation with a self-conscious awareness, contemplative learning helps the learner to access an open consciousness in a manner compatible with important concerns. Through the process of de-emphasizing the self and abandoning the need for a rigorous control of mental life, a gap is made for all the student's abilities to develop. These elements mixed with an open consciousness lead to sharpness and understanding. It is the deepest phase of contemplative learning. It leads the apprentice to transform. The way in which the person is in the world changes, embodying the full extent of what is taught. In this way, contemplative learning is not interrupted by what one knows.

Community-based action: this stage brings real contact between learners and the community. The foundation of this stage lies in the idea that when the learner works on a concrete project using several ways of doing so, he discovers a variety of facets that allow him to make more interconnections. In addition, the action contributes to a service thinking of others, which has an impact on community improvement.

Contemplative activities in the classroom

There are many and varied activities in the promotion of contemplative learning. Let's point four by way of example. One of them is to ask the students where are you now? In this activity students should remain silent, trying to relax, trying to focus on their awareness of the present moment. After a few minutes, the students can share the description of their particular awareness with their peers. Another activity that can be carried out is called deep listening. In it students are asked to take several deep breaths, to try to relax, closing their eyes if it helps them. They should take a few moments in silence to place themselves spatially and mentally. Students should then deeply listen to the reading (of a poem, idea, phrase, etc.), music or sound. The learners are asked to try to observe the images that emerge in their mind, the feelings in their body, thoughts, emotions, meanings, sounds, tastes, symbols, forms. They should simply sit and watch without issuing any kind of judgment. This activity (Childre, Howard, 2011: 30) is related to the idea that knowledge and memory are not only in the brain but in an energy information system associated with the heart. It is about taking several deep breaths and getting in the seat. As you relax, you must bring your attention to the area of ​​your chest, that place where we experience the feelings of love, affection and appreciation. You must imagine that you are breathing slowly through the heart, five seconds sucking, five seconds exhaling. This should be done several times before breathing again normally, keeping the attention in the heart. At that moment, it is about remembering a feeling of appreciation that you have for someone, a moment of joy or a significant event, attracting those feelings towards oneself. Once you have felt this, it is about extending the feeling towards you and others. If distractions occur in the process, focus on the heart area.

Finally, we are going to refer to an activity related to free writing. It begins with several deep breaths, closing the eyes and relaxing. Then, you open your eyes, and write everything you can about a particular topic (a class work, a comment about an opinion, etc.). It is about letting the feelings that we have in that moment, we put them in the paper. We have to write the essence of what we mean. Writing should be free, without concerns about grammatical, or morpho-syntactic rules, for the opinion of others or for logical coherence. Do not stop writing for 10 minutes, letting the thoughts flow, settle into the paper. These activities provide opportunities to activate, integrate, and normalize contemplative knowledge in the classroom. Adopting contemplative practice in class is not something completely new to students. It is a natural quality that balances and enriches the analytical capacity. In addition, it has the potential to improve performance in the class, character and depth of the student's experience. And most importantly, contemplative teaching helps transform the power of wonder, of intimacy, of being present, of daily learning, of pure life.

3.4 Learning strategies regarding adverb phrase

Learning strategies are popular because they are known as instruments used for the improvement of students' language competence. In this respect, pupils should have great responsibility for their competences in case they are aware of the tools already mentioned. Hence, teachers need to present students a variety of appropriate strategies, helping them to discover what really works in their cases, but also to encourage them to use these strategies in the appropriate moment. A good teacher will make learners enjoy thrilling experience of exploring and expanding their own capacities.

Many learning strategies regarding adverb phrase were identified, such as:

Identifying preferences and sharing them

Before the class begins, teachers should contact students in order to establish a connection with them, as well as to understand their preferences. This strategy may be achieved by asking students to complete a simple questionnaire, such as:

What is your favourite class work ?

Examples can be: pairs, individual or groups

What is your favourite type of class activity?

Examples can be: projects, lectures, discussions.

What sort of learning materials do you prefer?

Examples can be: books, videos, handouts

Who should provide guidance during the class?

Examples can be: a mentor, a friend, different students

What type of feedback do you consider is more appropriate?

Examples can be: group feedback, individual feedback, general summary of performance, detailed correction of every mistake.

The information collected from this short questionnaire may be a good facilitator for teacher in understanding different types of learners and their preferences. Individually talking, each student may consider these preferences and the purpose they were created; at the opposite pole, from a collective point of view, students’ preferences can be summarised by teacher and then shared with other students. In this regard, a rational opinion will be provided about the manner of managing a course. In particular, teachers can use this information to create face-to-face sessions, can use different teaching materials and can give feedback according to learners’ preferences. Thereby, the experience will have a more effective and meaningful aspect for both teachers and students.

The second strategy highlights the possibility of encouraging self monitoring                                                                   

Students find it useful to be aware of the manner they approach tasks given by teacher and also, they may observe other methods and approaches used by other students. This aspect can help learners to choose the best method and technique they use in learning. Specifically, learners may consider that other ways of learning are more appropriate for their needs, being more effective and suitable. In this respect, the capacity for self-monitoring has important role in facilitating and strengthening learner autonomy. To apply this type of strategy a teacher should follow the next steps:

a.   As a supplement to an assignment, teachers may ask student to write a brief essay reflecting on how they approached a certain task.

b.   In order to reflect, the following examples of questions are suitable for each learner:

How did you prepare for the examination?

What learning materials did you use for the assignment?

Did you read further before completing the assignment?

Did you make any note?

Did you discuss the assignment?

How much time did you spend on the giving answers?

c.   The learners should share these reflections with other students and they should discuss in groups.

d.   Students can decide which methods and techniques are the most suitable for each task.

e.   Students can be encouraged to try new ways to approach the tasks.

This strategy aims to promote self-monitoring. It also grows awareness of alternative ways for completing the given assignments. This strategy provides students with a wide range of methods and techniques, so that they will choose when attempting tasks. When using this type of strategy a teacher stimulates students to monitor their own activities regarding learning, thus encouraging autonomy.

3.The third strategy strengths summarising and sharing texts.

The capacity of reading and independently reflecting is vital for learner autonomy. Thereby, teachers should seize the opportunity to provide students with activities requiring them to read and paraphrase the texts. This type of activities discourages students’ reliance on obtaining explained aspects, while forcing them to make sense of the presented information. A suitable strategy is simple, but “effective, used in order to achieve the aspects mentioned above”. (Sykes, 2014:19) It has steps such as (Sykes, 2014:20):

The teacher will have the role to identify relevant texts such as articles, case studies, book chapters or reports and to provide them to students

Pupils will be divided into small groups or pairs

The teacher will give students to read one of the identified texts

Individually, pupils will read and then, they will identify the key points.

Learners will realize their summary with other colleagues

Learners will compose a text of their summaries

Students will present their text to the rest of the group

Group members and the teacher will ask questions

Group members and the teacher will make comments on the presented summary

Comments will lead to an open discussion about the text content.

This strategy supports students to learn by reading for themselves, but also helps them to identify the key points of the text. They would make sense of their reading without relying solely on input and explanation from the teacher. Pair-work may give students a sense of security and, at the same time, gives them the chance to check and confirm what they understood with group partners. Students presenting their summary to other colleagues represents a step that promotes the ownership of their learning: they are more responsible when share their knowledge and ideas with other students. When the teacher finds out a lack of understanding, he should provide clarification.

4. Strategy number four implies the relation between quizzes created by learner and quizzes generated by him

The autonomous learning requires an ability of reviewing, consolidating and creating new things on the basis of what has been already learnt. This is a type of ability that can be developed at the students’ level by means of incorporating it into classes topics and tasks that require the need of revisiting learning materials. Creating and answering learner-generated quizzes assure various opportunities that lead to an increase in pupils’ understanding of the subject content. This strategy helps students to remember what they have already learnt, what they should do to learn and the manner they can evaluate themselves. This is not only considered a useful revision instrument, but it also measures the students’ knowledge: it allows both pupils and teachers to identify domains that need more learning and consolidation.

This strategy can be practiced following some steps:

The teacher will ask students to find parts of the learning material necessary to review.

In small groups, students will review the material mentioned above and will prepare some questions in order to quiz their colleagues.

The groups share the quizzes

The groups answer each other’s quizzes.

The students check their colleagues answers.

Each pair reports on the questions with the lowest number of correct answers.

Helped by the teacher, the students will create a list of problem areas for reviewing it in the future.

This strategy helps students to identify the gaps at the knowledge level and also fill them. It also provides evidence of some issues. Students will understand that problems are not only individually faced, but also by their colleagues (in groups).

3.5 Motivation to learn adverb phrase aspects

Hand in hand with learner autonomy, motivation highlights essential aspects in the students’ development through the cycle of education and after it. Pupils may achieve a lot of struggle against issues if they are well-motivated or if they know a way to motivate themselves. Nowadays, motivation represents a very important subject for pupils. Students are more active, more talkative if they are motivated. Motivation is considered to be connected to the behaviour, as “a state that energizes, directs and sustains it” (Maqbool Ahmad, 2008:336) . This concept also involves goals, but requires activity. A goal reflects a stimulus for an action and its’ direction. Actions are characterized by effort and persistence to sustain long-term activities.

The selection of a free-choice task under appropriate conditions shows that motivation is the pillar of performing for that task right. High effort, mainly when working on different assignments, indicates motivation. In this respect, a good example is that of a student diligently working on a difficult exercise again and again. This situation indicates an increased level of motivation towards different scholar activities.

Working for a long-term period, particularly after facing many obstacles, is also associated with motivation at a higher degree.

Finally, one’s level of achievement may be affected by his own effort, choice or persistence. The higher these goals, the higher the motivation. Also, in this case the task achievement will be more appropriate.

During classes, teachers are aware of these aspects and that is why they make efforts to reinforce some activities that students were slightly interested in and to redirect their interests. The actual term which best describes this concept is the situational motivation.

Motivation has different effects on students' learning and behaviour. It directs students’ behaviour towards some particular aims. It determines a specific objective for which people take action; yet, it affects the choices students make. One can give examples such as: whether to enrol in a music class or chemistry, whether to attend a football game at school during the week or complete the homework for the next day.

Motivation may lead to an increased degree of effort and energy. It also determines whether a pupil will complete a task with enthusiasm or an unhappy attitude, a lackluster one.

Motivation flourishes the persistence of activities. It increases students' time at tasks levels and it is also considered an important factor which sometimes affects both their learning and achievement.

Motivation improves cognitive processing. It actually affects what type of information is processed and how it is made. Motivated students pay more attention and try to better understand the learning material instead of simply reading passages in a superficial manner.

3.6. Learning to learn adverb phrase grammatical aspects

Nowadays, most of the students would likely manifest their desire to learn as the main reason for studying three or four years to a college education. But, in essence, what do people mean when they use the verb “to learn”? This term is something all people do from the moment they came to life, so most of them consider it a very complex process. Although many people have a general sense of what this process implies, there are often many assumptions involved.

As defined in the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning (2006/962/EC),“learning to learn” represents that ability of persuasion and persistence in learning, organizing one’s learning through efficient time and information management, both at individual level and in pairs or groups. Learning to learn is a competence including awareness of one’s needs and his learning process. One may identify appropriate opportunities, being able to surpass various obstacles in order to accomplish a successful learning process.

This competence reflects obtaining, processing and absorbing new skills and knowledge. It also seeks and makes use of guidance. Learning to learn makes students to develop life experiences. In order to use and apply knowledge, students will develop skills and they need they need a wide area of contexts such as education, work, home or training.

In order to realize the process of learning to learn, motivation and confidence are essential for students’ competences.

In time, within the educational context, learning to learn became a political priority, despite the fact that there is a connection between its development and knowledge in the context of economy and social cohesion. Economic knowledge may be considered a competence that enables individuals to find a job, while social cohesion is reflected through the fact that individuals have “social skills necessary for a society to function in a democratic and cultural environment”. (Bryony Hoskins, Ulf Fredriksson, 2008:13) From this prospect, it is vital to reveal what this concept actually is. Until nowadays, there have been made many attempts in order to define learning to learn. Stringher (2006:14), famous on the learning to learn online research network, reviewed the existing sources on this concept and found “40 different definitions for it”. Laura Rožman and Andrej Koren (2013: 1213) emphasized the complexity of the process and noticed the existence of various concepts, such as: “meta cognition, socio-historical approaches, socio-constructivism, socio-cognitive approaches, as well as assessment studies and lifelong learning.”

Regarding the sector of education, the European Union is focused on “Key competencies”. In this respect, the process of “Learning to learn” is a recommendation on developing lifelong learning key competencies. The concept was adopted by the European Council and the European Parliament in December, 2006 (Education Council, 2006).

At the educational level, teachers may accelerate students' learning experience by teaching them the concept of learning-to-learn in an explicit manner. In time, research and experience have shown that high-performing learners present a tendency for:

Establishing goals.

Planning and managing time

Finding patterns in information.

Determining essential information.

Seeking help when necessary.

In this respect, high-performing tends to use memory strategies in an efficient manner (e.g. "distributed practice."). A good example could be considered the following: when a good pupil memorizes some words in order to prepare for an oral examination, he will not attempt to learn all words in one night. Instead, the student may memorize a number of six words in the first evening, another group of six words in the next evening, another group of six words in the third evening, and after all, he will memorize the last two words, but also will review the most difficult ones the evening before the examination. When teachers teach all students to use these kinds of strategies, an improvement will be registered at their performance level within a relatively short period of time, one or two weeks. One may emphasize that skills associated to learning-to-learn process are more efficient if they are taught compared to the content. For example, teachers can teach the comparing skill as students learn about photosynthesis.

When a student learns how to learn, he:

becomes better ;

inquires about a topic;

self-directs other learners.

When the learning experience has a deep effect on the learner, the student is very careful about the studied topic, about other or about the entire process learning. Greater caring can open new interests, but can also give energy for learning. Finally, it is very important to learn how to learn. This process suggests that by means of learning, students must diagnose their own need for learning and the manner to become self-learners. “This type of learning determines pupils learn continuously and more effectively. By far, it signifies a particularly important skill in terms of knowledge and advanced technology.” (AACU, 2002: 62)

CHAPTER IV. THE EXPERIMENTAL STAGE.

4.1. Pre-experimental stage. Basic tools and methods

4.1.1. The premise and the aims of the research

The main objective of the present research is to highlight the advantages and limitations of the methods in the formation and development of competences by English teaching – learning to intermediate level students. Subordinate to the proposed goal, the pedagogical experiment will take into account the following aspects:

1. the efficiency that the use of modern educational means and implicit interactive methods have in teaching – learning English grammar to intermediate level students;

2. the appreciation of the correlation between the systematic use of modern educational means and the improvement of the school performances of intermediate level students.

The general hypothesis can be formulated as follows:

• Using interactive methods systematically in the context of teaching-learning-assessment at the English grammar, one may observe a significant contribution to the improvement of the intermediate level students' performance.

The approach of didactic activities in the experiment was carried out from the perspective of checking the specific assumptions in a derivation report with the general hypothesis.

Specific hypotheses:

1. The systematic use of interactive methods in the context of didactic activity influences significantly the formation and development of competences, the ability to understand and use the specific concepts of English grammar in ways corresponding to the needs of individual life as regards the students at the intermediate level.

2. The systematic use, in didactic activity, of modern educational means influences significantly the formation and development of the capacity to understand and use the specific terms and concepts of English grammar as well as the ability to experiment and explore / investigate reality through the use of specific tools and procedures.

3. The optimal use of modern educational means, combined with interactive methods has a significant influence on the efficiency of didactic management at the intermediate level.

Research objectives

The research objectives can be expressed as following:

• to participate actively and interactively in learning, to discover new knowledge in collaboration with other colleagues and under the guidance of the teacher;

• to discover, recognize and use correspondences and successions or phenomena associated with the given rules;

• to explore different ways of learning;

• to observe and denote the effects of phenomena and use a specific language in the description of various situations;

• to form a correct and efficient intellectual work style that they can adopt in their learning activity.

Research variables

In terms of the general hypothesis, the following variables have been set for this experiment:

– independent variable – this variable is represented by the design and development of learning activities based on modern educational means and, implicitly, on interactive methods, focusing on their systematic use in didactic activities;

– Ist dependent variable : level of school results obtained by intermediate level students (grades A and B) at the English Language discipline;

– IInd dependent Variable: students’ attitude towards school and learning at the intermediate level.

Major Research Coordinates:

The research took place between the 15th of November, 2016 and the 26th of May, 2017.

Sample of Participants:

– Experimental sample: Grade A, ……… School, name of the city, 19 students: 10 boys and 9 girls.

– Control sample: Grade B, ……. School, name of the city, represented by 20 students, 8 boys and 12 girls.

The content sample was represented by:

• Curricular area: Foreign Languages

• Discipline: English Language and Literature

The learning units approached were:

…………………………………

…………………………………

4.1.2. Methods and techniques of investigation

The didactic methods applied in the context of present research have been selected so as to have the capacity to respond to the requirements of a pedagogical investigation, but also to prevent potential errors in investigation and processing of factual material. In this context, in order to confirm or refute the previously established general hypothesis I used a methodological system made up of the following methods:

-the method of the conversation

-the method of systematic observation;

-the method of analyzing the products of the activity;

-the case study method

-the method of the medium-term psycho-pedagogical / didactic experiment. This experiment was carried out in stages, according to the following phases: the pre-experimental phase, the experimental phase and the post-experimental phase.

The observation method is used to investigate and collect the experimental data according to the requirements of the type:

• formulating the exact purpose of observation,

• drawing up the observation plan,

• recording the data in a proper manner (video, audio, or classical),

• classification,

• comparing,

• reporting

• Data interpretation.

Observation can be spontaneous, scientific, exploration-oriented and experimental. This is one of the main methods of direct investigation, manifesting itself in the form of a systematic act of careful follow-up of the educational process, under certain sides, without making any changes from the researcher. The natural observation can be undertaken in parallel with the current activities, the observer's teaching staff giving him the opportunity to consider the quality of the activities carried out by the pupils, the frequent errors in solving the various problems, the typical situations in which one manifests indiscipline or inattention. In the context of this method, the observed data is immediately recorded, without the pupils becoming aware of this. In this respect, we used the observation sheet on the basis of which we prepared the observation protocol. The data gathered, after being ordered and interpreted, gave me a primary orientation on the subject of this research, as well as some methodical suggestions useful for the next stage.

The method of conversation involves the discussion of the teacher's framework, whose role is that of the researcher and student, respectively the subject investigated. This method allows direct observation and direct appreciation of the pupil's inner life, the intentions behind his behaviour, as well as the opinions, beliefs, attitudes, aspirations, interests, conflicts, prejudices and mentalities, feelings and values ​​of the pupil.

The advantage of this method is that it allows the collection of numerous, varied and valuable information in a short time and without the need for special materials and equipment. Organized from an intellectual and affective point of view, but also its placement at the optimal moment of teacher-school relations, the method of conversation made possible the emergence of the moments by which the children remained close to me. According to the particularities of the intermediate level students, we organized conversations that were meant to invite intimacy and relaxation, but at the same time, to the continuity, in order to record the child's livelihoods. During the process of the conversation, I did not write down anything about the children's approach, but later on I formed the protocol of the discussion. The disadvantage of this method derives from the possible failure of the subject's receptivity, its subjectivity, and in this respect it is necessary for the data to be completed and verified by other methods.

The case study method involves presenting the case, analyzing it, proposing solutions and testing them, applying the optimal and efficient solution. The "case study" method refers to individual behaviour throughout the social framework, focusing on data analysis and on their unitary presentation as relevant variables necessary for understanding the knowledge.

On the whole, one may consider that we have used a category of methods for describing and measuring the various aspects and manifestations of the pedagogical act in the current context. The fundamental aspect of the tools included in this group is the recording of data and findings after they have occurred. Thus, it is possible to obtain an inventory of these data which will allow the diagnosis of the manifestations and, implicitly, the improvement of the educational activity.

The method of analyzing school activity products. In terms of this method, it is possible to research the pupils' school performance and the various activities it involves. The analysis of the activities products carried out by the students gave me some important clues about the characteristics of observation, the ability to observe, understanding and mental development, the volume and accuracy of knowledge, the ability to put them into practice, general and special skills, general and specific creativity saddle. Of particular importance is the analysis of the products made by students in their leisure activities.

They show the motivational orientation characteristic of schoolchildren, as well as the interest they have in studying English grammar.

Research Tools

In order to get information about the pupils' personality, their level of knowledge and skills, their behaviours and their involvement in the educational process, we used as research tools:

– pedagogical knowledge tests;

Most of these instruments have been taken over and adapted to the content of the pupils, the particularities of the pupils and the objectives in question.

4.2. Experimental stage. Testing

The initial stage helps to establish the level at which pupils are at the moment of initiation of the psycho-pedagogical experiment, both in the experimental sample and in the control sample.

Table 1

The results obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample

The results are distributed as following:

Average at the class level is of the form: (1×0+2×0+3×3+4×1+5×5+6×3+7×2+8×1+9×0+10×0):15= 5.20

Module (the most frequent mark) is represented by mark 5

Table 2

Nominal table with the scores obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample

Analyzing the results obtained by 15 of the 19 pupils of the grade A, respectively the experimental sample, at the initial test, we can say that the module at the group level is 5, 11 grades being scored over the mark 5. In the same context, one may observe a grouping of marks on a fairly large segment.

Observing the graph above, there is a lack of 1 and 2 marks which suggests that the tendencies of promotion are increasing, but there is a deficit of 9 and 10 marks that suggests the poor involvement of pupils in the teaching-learning process. Also, since no student has fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach, it is easy to understand that success can only be achieved in the future by longer training and by giving more attention and importance to the discipline.

Table 3

Results obtained at the initial test by the control sample

The results are distributed as follows:

Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×2+4×3+5×3+6×2+7×3+8×2+9×2+10×0):17= 5,88

Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the marks: 4, 5 and 7

Table 4

Nominal table with the marks obtained at the initial test by the control group

According to the graphs and tables above, the representative sample of the control group ranges around marks 4, 5 and 7. In this context, in the grade B there were 12 marks over 5, also observing here a grouping of marks on an extended segment. Also, the fact that marks 1 and 2 are missing suggests an upward trend in the promise of the initial test, but on the other hand, the absence of the mark 10 can be attributed to the lack of student concentration. Under the same aspect, no student has fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach.

According to the results obtained by the students of the experimental and control groups, the following measures for optimizing the didactic approach can be considered:

• Returning with additional information in the field where a deficit is found

• To propose new exercises and text that pupils should analyze from this perspective

• Insisting on resolving exercises of the type corresponding to the initial test

Observing the structural diagram of the averages obtained at the level of the two classes in the context of the initial test, it is noted that the control group is relatively higher compared to the experimental group. One may observe in this context an initial phase of the finding, also known as the initial test, the context in which the starting dates were collected, the level existing at the time of initiation of the experience with which the English language teacher works. Interpreting the results and the information obtained from the pedagogical knowledge test, the analysis of the pupils' products, their systematic observation and the learning outcomes, one may found that there are no very large differences regarding the two samples, as the above diagram emphasizes.

In the context of administering the initial test at the level of the two samples, the following general and specific competencies are noted:

General, social and civic competencies

1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;

2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.

Specific targeted competencies

1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of their meaning;

1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the different types of texts and;

1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;

2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;

2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;

2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.

4.3. Post-experimental stage. Evaluation/Conclusions

The final experimental stage of this research was the administration of a final evaluation test, the subjects being the same for both classes, experimental and control ones. Subsequently, the results recorded in this context were compared with those obtained from the initial assessment.

As far as the evaluation of the results is concerned, it was possible with the help of the notes, to set the total score for each item. The next step was to compare the results obtained by each class in terms of comparison charts and those that reveal the structure.

In the context of the final stage, the following general and specific competencies were considered:

General, social and civic competencies

1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;

2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.

Specific targeted competencies

1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of students meaning;

1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the epic text and the expressive procedures in the lyrical text;

1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;

2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;

2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;

2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.

Table 5

The results obtained at the final test by the experimental sample

The results are distributed as following:

Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×2+5×0+6×1+7×6+8×3+9×1+10×2):15= 7.26

Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark 7

Table 6

Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the experimental class

Based on the graphs and tables representative for the results obtained by the experimental sample at the final test, it can be stated that the module was around the 7th mark, and in terms of the degree of advancement, this is a good one, 13 marks being recorded over the 5th mark. As well as in the case of the final test, a grouping of marks on a quite stretched beach is noted. In the same context, none of the marks 1, 2, 3 and 5 were recorded, and two pupils with mark 10 achieved the objectives that were initially proposed in the context of the didactic approach.

Table 7

Results obtained at the final test by the control sample

Table 8

Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the control class

Analyzing the results obtained at the final test by the control sample, there is a presence of 14 marks over the 5th one. In this context, the module is represented by mark 5, observing a grouping of marks on a large beach.

Also in the case of the control group, marks such as 1, 2, 3 and 10 are missing, which means that none of the grade B pupils have fully achieved the objectives proposed during the didactic approach.

In this context, the main measures for optimizing the didactic approach at both levels are:

• Return with additional information

• To identify gaps in the context of the teaching-learning process of adverb phrase in which pupils should be involved at maximum capacity

• Insist on solving the exercises similar to the ones received by the students at the final test

Observing the structural diagrams of the averages obtained at the level of the two samples in the context of the final test, it is noted that with respect to the experimental group, the average is higher compared to the control one.

All the 49 students were given a test regarding the adverb phrase. The evaluation test was structured in relation to the framework and reference objectives of the curriculum. Objectives of the test are the following ones:

– use correctly in statements the verbs;

– recognize the adverb phrase;

– differentiate the adverb phrases from other ones;

– identify the verbs in the text;

– to differentiate between personal and non-personal modes;

The analysis of the results obtained in this English grammar test by pupils allows a detailed description of the problems and difficulties faced by the pupils in this class but also the brief outline of their strengths and weaknesses.

STRENGTHS:

After correcting the test, I found that students know the verb definition, they know the verb has four conjugations, they know how to correctly apply the verbs, identify the verbs in the text and also distinguish the adverb phrase. They also know how to differentiate the adverb phrase.

WEAKNESSES:

After applying the test it was found that some students of can not spell correctly. Another common mistake is the fact that some students do not differentiate between the auxiliary and the predictive verbs. And identifying conjugations has created some difficulties. Some of them also does not analyze the verb correctly.

OPPORTUNITIES:

Successful promotion of internal and external assessments during the current school year;

Successful completion of the school year and the gymnasium cycle;

The possibility to continue studying at a high school depending on the student's intellectual profile and the results of the gymnasium cycle;

The possibility of active, responsible and competent integration in the society and the labor market, and even the achievement of a successful career;

THREATS:

Corigence and / or repetition;

Disinterest and / or school abandon;

Reduction and / or absence of further educational perspectives;

The impossibility to attend a high school after the gymnasium cycle;

The impossibility of active, responsible and competent integration in society and the labor market, social and professional marginalization

OPTIMIZATION RECOMMENDATIONS:

Difficulties encountered in resolving the test require some remedial measures:

solving several exercises with the correct writing of the orthograms;

performing several morpho-syntactic analysis exercises;

making several sentences with verbs: predictive, copulative and auxiliary;

constant checking of the themes;

I have tried the items to be as varied as possible to cover as much knowledge as possible. Also, I realized as many items as possible. Thus, objective items, semi-objective items, short-response items and subjective ones of problem-solving appear in this final test. The first topics were accessible, while the last one is more complex. The results obtained by the 49 students, can be summarized as following, in percentage:

The highest percentage was situated at the value of 26.53% (the one of the mark 6), while at the opposite pole one may find the value of 0% recorded for marks 1, 2, 9 and 10. In this respect, one may consider the following:

• The arithmetic average obtained at the class level is 5.90.

• The module (the highest frequent mark) is 6.

• The median is between marks 5 and 6, respectively 5.50.

Through this test, operational concepts were verified, such as: verbal, verbal types, adverb types, noun, adjective, conditional sentences. Students 'grammatical knowledge was also verified.

Thus, according the results of certain dissatisfaction, the teacher will take the following measures:

• she will develop tables with verbal time

• she will develop texts in order to improve students’ vocabulary

• she will develop exercises on different themes

• she will increase the hours when students can practice writing

• she will develop elaborate appropriate tests

The analysis and interpretation of the data and implicitly, of the obtained results suggests the presence of a positive trend aimed at improving the school results of the intermediate level students in favour of both experimental and control samples. Moreover, this trend can not be exclusively attributed to the psychic and physical development of pupils, which is why we can assert that the initial hypothesis is confirmed. Using the interactive methods and techniques, both individually, by group and frontal, is the following:

• children have the ability to learn new knowledge with ease;

• the students' confidence in their ability to decode and comprehend the content, both individually and at group level, is observed;

• students show an increasing desire to be involved in the learning process and show no signs of fatigue as they engage willingly, freely, consciously, learning logically and actively;

• children have acquired a tinted language and enriched by various teaching methods;

The data suggests that there is a positive trend in improving student outcomes in favour of the experimental sample, in terms of transforming the teacher-student relationship into a democratic one, aligned with modern standards. Thus, intermediate level students enjoy effective communication based on cooperation, mutual help, initiative and freedom, thanks to the factual methods used by the English teacher.

In this context, it can be said that the present study was a real challenge for me, in terms of an opportunity to study both the literature and the psycho-pedagogical type, to enrich and deepen my knowledge regarding interactive methods and phenomena characterized by complexity, but topical and vital for the future. In the case of the two samples studied in this research it was found that in the first experimental phase, the differences between the average are statistically relative, the balance inclining towards the control sample, but as the experimental intervention is unfolding, one may observe remarkable differences between environments, on this occasion favouring the experimental group. This is due to the fact that the dynamics of the school performance, which the experimental group follows, contributes to the decrease of the difference between the media to the inflection point, after which the difference between the averages in favour of the experimental sample follows an ascending trend.

The qualitative and quantitative comparative approaches between the two groups (experimental and control) reinforce the assertion that the ascending evolution of the school performance of the experimental sample is strongly influenced by the final experimental intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

The present research deals with a current issue, framed in the new orientations of contemporary pedagogy, aiming in particular at replacing the grading methodologies and differentiating ones that support the individualization and the personalization of the educational process, offering equal opportunities to all students regardless of their level, thus promoting various methods with a high training potential that can lead to the optimization of the action taken by the students in the context of their own learning.

The experimental investigation supports the intention to verify the extent to which the use of interactive teaching methods and of the modern educational means in the teaching of English grammar has a particular influence on the achievement of the students' superior performances in terms of the positive impact these methods especially in the field of effective and conscious learning, but also as regards the intention to identify the limits of the use of these methods.

The approach taken in the present research presents clarifying and argumentative aspects, supporting the idea that the interactive methods promoted systematically and with pedagogical relevance in didactic activity have positive effects on school performance.

Appreciating the results obtained from the investigative approach, it can be confirmed that the teaching of English grammar to intermediate level students using modern educational means and interactive methods has significant positive effects, both in the formative segment and in the information plan.

The design and development of the pedagogical experiment was carried out from the perspective of optimizing the teaching and learning process of the English grammar at the intermediate level, the exigency of the systematic use of interactive methods regarding the formation and the development of the fundamental competences, in the dynamics of school performance segment. The pedagogical intervention was carried out in the context of the English grammar didactic activities at the level of the A and B grades. The two samples (experimental and control) were selected according to the methodology of pedagogical research while respecting the compatibility with the various requirements imposed by the objectives and the hypothesis of the formative experiment.

With regard to the content sample, its delimitation was possible by the potential of capitalizing on the formative valences that modern and interactive didactic methods have, appreciating also the extent to which the content contributes to the learning and development of the understanding, using the concepts and specific terms of the discipline of study, exploration and investigation capacity of reality. Thus, the content sample covers a significant part of the contents of the English grammar.

The formative experiment was the fundamental stage of this pedagogical research, at which level the didactic activities did take place at the intermediate level, according to the intervention project. The processing and interpretation of experimental data, referring to specific hypotheses, makes it easier to outline future conclusions.

Using interactive methods makes it possible to create a logical and natural chain between old and new knowledge; didactic units are not separate sequences, but they are inter-conditioned in a training situation, contributing to an optimal understanding of them, as they capitalize and activate the previous knowledge of students.

As expected, conducting this experimental research has given me the opportunity to see new perspectives, address other possible themes or subtopics, set new objectives and, implicitly, distinct working hypotheses, use innovative assessment tools and advanced data analysis techniques. In the same context, the process of collecting and analyzing data has given me the opportunity to know the various limits of research.

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