3.1 Linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphors 3.2 Non-linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphors 4. CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN BRANCUSI’S… [309847]

1. INTRODUCTION

The aims of the paper

The structure of the paper

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Cognitive semantics

2.2 Conceptual metaphors

3. METAPHOR IN CULTURE

3.1 Linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphors

3.2 Non-linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphors

4. CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN BRANCUSI’S WORK

4.1 The conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS

4.2 The conceptual metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A STRONG (PHYSICAL) BOND

4.3 The conceptual metaphor FLYING IS UP

4.4 The conceptual metaphor ABSTRACT STRUCTURE IS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

4.5 The conceptual metaphor SAD IS A BURDEN

4.6 The conceptual metaphor SIGNIFICANT IS BIG

4.7 The conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE PEOPLE

4.8 The conceptual metaphor TIME IS A FLUID CONTAINER

5. CONCLUSIONS

1.1 [anonimizat] “enact” in the sculptures of C. Brancusi and which of the conceptual metaphors adapt to the sculptures. [anonimizat]’s work differs from a target and source domain to another, I group the sculptures to 8 different categories.

[anonimizat], in poetic and everyday language (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 3)

But, metaphor is not present only in the way we speak but also in the nonlinguistic existence (movies, drawings, symbols, myths, etc.).

This paper goes on two directions. First, it aims to show that our everyday language and thought plays a crucial role in the study of conceptual metaphors and that metaphors are devices that help to define abstract concepts in terms of more concrete concepts. Although it has been claimed that all metaphors share a [anonimizat]. [anonimizat] a [anonimizat].

The structure of the paper

This work details the cognitive semantics and conceptual metaphors. [anonimizat], understands, and then responds to the sentences and words they are presented with. In this area of ​​study, language is considered a mental phenomenon in which much of what people hear and say is processed and treated specifically in extended models within the minds of the participants. [anonimizat] a literary matter, a rhetorical device and a language decoration. [anonimizat], and one subject that is the subject of linguistic research is that of conceptual metaphors.

Conceptual metaphors are based on the idea that people describe certain conceptual domains through properties and ideas related to other conceptual domains (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 5).
[anonimizat] G. Lakoff and M. Johnson (1980). They found that people are not just using metaphors to describe a [anonimizat]. The connection between the two domains is so strong that thinking without each other can be done with difficulty. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state that ARGUMENT and the WAR are so closely related that if we do not think of ARGUMENT regarding the war, we might not recognize the action as "arguing" (1980: 4-5).

They have found that many abstract conceptual domains, often quite abstract, such as ARGUMENT, TIME and LOVE, are described using terms related to other conceptual domains, like WAR, MONEY, JOURNEY, etc.

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Cognitive semantics

Cognitive semantics are truth-conditional semantics, developed within formal linguistics, which began in the 1970s as a reaction against the objectivist worldview assumed by the Anglo-American tradition in philosophy and the related approach. (Evans and Green, 2006: 156)

Eve Sweetser (1990: 4), a leading cognitive linguist, describes the true-conditioned approach in the following terms: "Looking at the meaning as a relation between words and the world, true-conditioned semantics eliminates the cognitive organization of the linguistic system". Contrary to this view, cognitive semantics sees linguistic significance as a manifestation of the conceptual structure: the nature and organization of mental representation in all its richness and diversity, and that is what makes it a distinct approach to linguistic meaning.

Leonard Talmy (2000:4), one of the original pioneers of cognitive linguistics in the 1970s, describes cognitive semantics as follows: "Researching cognitive semantics is the study of conceptual content and its organization in language".

Cognitive semantics had adopted four guiding principles, and these are:

Conceptual structure is embodied,

Semantic structure is conceptual structure,

Meaning representation is encyclopaedic,

Meaning construction is conceptualisation.

(Evans and Green, 2006, 157)

We will discuse them in turn:

Conceptual structure is embodied

The semanticist’s concern is about the relation between the conceptual structure and the external word of the sensory experience.

To ilustrate the idea with an example we can imagine a person who is locked in a room. This room has an interior, an exterior, the sides of it are enclosed and they all represent the structural properties of the room. The consequence of these structural properties is the fact that the room has also the functional property of containment. It means that the person who is locked in the room is enable to leave.

We can observe that this issue of containment is a consequence of those properties of the room and a consequence of the qualities of the human body. The containment is a consequence of the specific type of physical relation which we had interacted with the external world.

Semantic structure is conceptual structure

This principle affirms that language refers to concepts in the mind of the speaker, rather than to objects in the outside world. In other words, the semantic structure (the meanings conventionally associated with the words and other linguistic units) can be assimilated to the concepts. These conventional meanings associated with words are linguistic concepts or lexical concepts: the conventional form that the conceptual structure requires to be encoded in language. However, the assertion that the semantic structure can be assimilated to the conceptual structure does not mean that the two are identical. Instead, cognitive semantics claim that word-related meanings, for example, form only a subset of possible concepts. After all, we have more thoughts, ideas and feelings than we can conventionally codify in language. We have a concept for the place on our faces under our nose and above our mouth where we find the mustaches. We need to have a concept for this side of the face to understand that the hair that grows there is called a mustache. However, as Langacker points out (1987), there is no English word that conventionally codifies this concept (at least not in the non-specialist language of everyday language). It follows that the set of lexical concepts is only a subset of the entire set of concepts in the speaker's mind. The semantic structure establishes a connection with the linguistic units. These are words (dog), a bound morpheme such as –er (butcher), or the structure of an active sentence and a passive sentence:

Mark Twain wrote The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (active sentence)

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer was written by Mark Twain (passive sentence).

In the active sentences the active participant in the event is placed at the front of the construction while in the passive sentence the focus is centered on the participant that experiences the action. The conventional meanings associated with these grammatical constructs are often schematic, but they are nevertheless significant. According to the conception adopted in cognitive semantics, the same thing happens to smaller grammar units, including words like the and tense morphemes, such as -ed in walked.

There are two important explanations that result from the principle that the semantic structure is a part of the conceptual structure. First of all, it is important to emphasize that cognitive semantics do not claim that language refers to internal concepts for the speaker's mind and nothing else. This would lead to an extreme form of subjectivity, in which concepts are divorced from the world they are linked to (Sinha, 1999). Indeed, we have concepts first and foremost either because they are useful ways to understand the outside world, or because they are inevitable ways of understanding the world, given our cognitive architecture and our physiology. Cognitive semantics thus leads a way between opposing extremes of subjectivism and objectivism encapsulated in the traditional semantics of conditional truth, claiming that concepts refer to lived experienced. Let's look at an example. Consider the BACHELOR concept. This is an example discussed in the semantic literature. This concept, traditionally defined as an unmarried adult man, is not isolated from ordinary experience because we can not actually apply it to all unmarried adult men. We understand that some adult males are not eligible for marriage because of either vocation or sexual preference (at least while marriage is limited to happening between opposite sex members). For this reason, it would be somehow weird to apply the bachelor term to either a pope or a homosexual man, even if both, strictly speaking, meet the "bachelor definition".

The second point refers to the notion of semantic structure. We have assumed so far that the meanings associated with the words can be defined: for example, BACHELOR means "unmarried adult man". However, we have already begun to see that those meanings of the words, which we call lexical concepts, can not be clearly defined. Indeed, strict definitions such as the "unmarried adult male" fail to adequately capture the range and diversity of meaning associated with any given lexical concept. For this reason, cognitive semantics reject the definition or dictionary about the meaning of the word in favor of an encyclopedic view.

Meaning representation is encyclopaedic

The third central principle of cognitive semantics claims that the semantic structure is encyclopedic in nature. This means that words are not packed meaningful packages (dictionary visualization), but serve as "access points" in the vast knowledge warehouse related to a particular concept or conceptual domain (Langacker, 1987). I have illustrated this idea above about the BACHELOR concept. Indeed, not only do we know that certain types of unmarried adult men would not normally be described as bachelors, we also have cultural knowledge about the behavior associated with stereotypical bachelors. It is an "encyclopedic" knowledge of this kind that allows us to interpret this contradictory sentence:

Look after Jane, your husband is a good bachelor!

Identifying Jane's husband (a married man) as a bachelor would seem contradictory. However, given our cultural stereotype, which represents them as sexual predators, we understand the expression as a warning issued by Jane regarding the fidelity of her husband. As this example illustrates, the meanings associated with words are often based on complex and sophisticated bodies of knowledge. Of course, affirming that words are "access points" in the encyclopedic sense does not mean denying that words have conventional meanings associated with them. The fact that the next example means something different from the third example is a consequence of the conventional domain of significance associated with safety and happiness.

Victor is safe.

Victor is happy.

However, cognitive semantics claim that the conventional meaning associated with a certain word is just a "prompt" for the process of constructing meaning: "selecting" an appropriate interpretation against the context of the word. For example, the word safe has a wide range of meanings, and the meaning we select comes from the context in which the word takes place. To illustrate this point, consider the examples in the next sentences in the context of a child playing on the beach. In this context, the first sentence is that the child will have no harm. However, the second sentence does not mean that the beach will not come to harm. Instead, it means that the beach is an environment where the risk of the child coming to harm is minimized. Similarly, the third sentence does not mean that the shovel will not harm, but will not harm the child.

The baby is safe

The beach is safe

The shovel is safe

These examples illustrate that there is no single fixed property that safe ensures to the words baby, beach and shovel and our knowledge of what it means to be safe. We "construct" a meaning by "selecting" an appropriate meaning in the context of the word.
Just to give some examples, the sentence “The beach is safe” could be interpreted in any of the following ways, given the appropriate context. Some of these meanings can be paraphrased as "safe against harm," and others as "unlikely to harm":

this beach has avoided the impact of a recent oil spill;

this beach will not be dug by real estate developers;

due to its location in a temperate climate, you will not suffer from sunburn on this beach;

this beach, which is prone to agglomeration, is free of pickpockets;

there are no jellyfish in the sea;

the miniature model beach with luxury hotels, designed by an architect, who was abandoned in an unattended manner before an important meeting, was not affected.

Meaning construction is conceptualisation

The meaning construction is equal with the conceptualisation which is a process where the linguistic units are used as prompts for a stack of conceptual procedures and the recruitment of background knowledge.

An important phenomenon of the cognitive semantics is the categorisation of entities as members of groups. Cognitive semantics is dealing with the investigation of the conceptual structure and with the processes of conceptualisation. The most important feature of meaning construction is the role of mappings which are local connections between distinct mental spaces, conceptual information "packages" that are built during the "on-line" process of meaning construction. We have this example from Taylor (2002: 530):

In France, Bill Clinton wouldn’t have been harmed by his relationship with Monica Lewinsky.

These types of sentences are called counterfactuals (Evans, 2006: 162), because they describe a scenario that is counter to fact. This sentence encourages us to imagine a scenario in which Bill Clinton, the former US President, is actually the President of France, and that the scandal that surrounded him and the former Whitehouse intern, Monica Lewinsky, took place not in the United States but in France.

In the context of this scenario, it is suggested that Bill Clinton would not have been politically injured by his extramarital air with Lewinsky. According to Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner (2002), we need to take part in conceptual feats of breathtaking complexity to gain access to this kind of meaning. These conceptual facts are made per second in the process of building meaning in speech and without conscious awareness.

In conceptual blending theory (Evans, 2006: 163), the sentence above prompts us to set up one mental space, a ‘reality space’, in which Clinton is the US President, Lewinsky is his intern, they have an affair, they are found out and scandal ensues. We also set up a second ‘reality space’, which contains the President of France together with knowledge about French culture which deems it permissible for French presidents to have extra-marital relations, and ‘public’ and ‘private’ families. In a third blended space, Clinton is the President of France, he has an affair with Lewinsky, they are found out, but there is no scandal. Because of the conceptual mappings that relate the first two spaces to the third blended space, we come to understand something additional about the original ‘input’ or reality spaces. We learn that the cultural and moral sensitivities regarding extramarital affairs between politicians and members of their staff are radically different in the United States and France. This meaning is constructed on the basis of complex mapping operations between distinct reality-based scenarios, which combine to create a new counterfactual scenario. The blended space, then, gives rise to a new meaning, albeit counterfactual, which is not available from encyclopaedic knowledge. This new meaning rests upon Clinton as French President escaping scandal despite his affair with Lewinsky.

Phenomena investigated within cognitive semantics

Cognitive semantics investigates six phenomenas regarding the guiding principles that supports them:

The bodily basis of meaning,

Conceptual structure,

Encyclopaedic semantics,

Mappings,

Categorisation,

Word meaning and polysemy.

The bodily basis of meaning

If we assume that the conceptual structure is tied to preconceptual experience then we are directed to investigate the conceptual metaphors. Systems of conceptual mappings result from the conceptual metaphors which are motivated by the image-schematic structure. If these arise from bodily experience, then we are able to explain the conceptual metaphor on the idea that it has a detailed structure from concrete domains to more abstract concepts.

E.g: The number of commissions went up.

Lakoff and Johnson (Evans, 2006: 164) argue that this conventional pattern of conceptual mapping is directly grounded in everyday experience. For example, when we pour a liquid into a glass, there is a simultaneous increase in the height and quantity of the fluid. This is a typical example of the correlation between height and quantity. Similarly, if we put items onto a pile, an increase in height correlates with an increase in quantity. This experiential correlation between height and quantity, which we experience from an early age, has been claimed to motivate the conceptual metaphor MORE IS UP, also known as QUANTITY IS VERTICAL ELEVATION.

Conceptual structure

To uncover the conceptual structure in language, we have to investigate the functions that are associated with open class and closed class semantic systems (Evans and Green, 2006: 165). This closed class semantic system is associated with the grammatical constructions, bound morphemes and grammatic words. The open class system is associated with the morphemes and it provides the content which is related to a particular scene. In the example: „The man fished a trout”, the sentence has a declarative word order (it is not an interrogative sentence), the elements „the” and the bound morpheme –ed from „fished”, they all form the closed class system. They provide information about the event, when it occured, if the participants are familiar to the speaker, how many they were. The open class system is related to the words: man, fish and trout, which shows who are the participants and which is the nature of the event described in this scene.

Encyclopaedic semantics

This phenomena focuses on the way in which the semantic structure is put together to conceptual knowledge structures. The notion of frame defines the knowledge structures from our everyday experiences. According to this definition, the knowledge of the word meaning is the knowledge of the individual frames with which a word is associated.

By way of illustration, consider the verbs rob and steal. On first inspection it might appear that these verbs both relate to a THEFT frame, which includes the following roles: (1) THIEF; (2) TARGET (the person or a place that is robbed); and (3) GOODS (to be) stolen. However, there is an important difference between the two verbs: while rob profiles THIEF and TARGET, steal profiles THIEF and GOODS. (Evans and Green, 2006: 166).

Jesse robbed [the rich] (of their money) Goldberg (1995: 45).

[Jesse] stole [money] (from the rich). Goldberg (1995: 45).

Mappings

There are three types of mapping operations identified by Fauconnier (1997: 167). These are:

Projection mappings,

Pragmatic function mappings,

Schema mappings.

The projection mapping reffers to the projection of the structure from the source domain into the target domain. In the sentence „The time for a decision has come” (Evans and Green, 2006: 167) the temporally concept which correspond to the expression „the time for a decision” is structured in term of MOTION. These conventional mappings admit us to understand abstract concepts.

Categorisation

Categorisation reffers to the ability to identify entities as members of groups. This ability is central to human knowledge. When we categorise animals, certain types of animals (like dogs and cats) are judged as better examples of the category than others (like mice).

Word meaning and polysemy

Polysemy reffers to the words which have more than one meaning associated with them and those meanings are related.

In the next lines we analise two of the central principles of the cognitive semantics and these are:

the thesis that conceptual structure derives from embodiment (embodied cognition thesis),

the thesis that semantic structure reflects conceptual structure. (Evans and Green, 2006: 176)

These principles are linked because when we establish that the nature of the embodiment determines the nature of represented concepts, then we can see how this language system gives meaning, counting on the concepts which are derived from the embodiment.

IMAGE SCHEMAS

To devellop the idea of the thesis of embodied cognition, we use the theory of image schemas. These image schemas are abstract and conceptual representations which appear from the interaction with the world in every moment of our life. It means that they appear from the embodied experience. In the work of Leonard Talmy we find his theory about conceptual structure. He specified that the structural or schematic meaning is one of the ways in which language enciphers conceptual representation. This connect to the structural properties of the referents (entities like objects and people) and of the scenes (situations and events).

Metaphors are linked to other fundamental structures, such as image schemes, mental spaces, scene construction, and profiling. Some of them are in fact pre-conceptual structures based on the philosophy of embodiment that refers to the link between human biology and the human cognitive process. In the following paragraphs we will discuss about what an image scheme means. This presentation is based on concepts and examples taken from Mark Johnson's book, 1987, The Body of the Mind.

In his view, an image schema is a mental pattern that periodically provides a structured understanding of different experiences and is available for use in metaphor as a source domain to provide an understanding of other experiences. Several types of image schemes have been identified and recorded below.

One of the most used image schema is the container. A containment schema is an image schema involving a physical or metaphorical boundary, an enclosed area, or a volume or area or
an excluded area or volume. A containment schema that has additional optional properties such as transitivity or enclosure (if an object is enclosed for one second and then by a third, the first is also enclosed by the third one) objects inside or outside the boundary, protection of an enclosed object, the restriction of forces inside the enclosure, and the relatively fixed position of an enclosed object. The visual field can be conceived as a container, and so can some activities or states may appear. Here are some examples for each:

parents should always have their children in their sight.

he has put a lot of devotion in his relationship.

they are in love for quite a long time.

A path schema is an image schema that involves physical or metaphorical movements from one place to another and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor is expressed in the following sentences:

John has gone a long way toward changing his personality.

you have reached the midpoint of your flight training

she’s just starting out to make her fortune.

Jane was sidetracked in her search for self-understanding.

A center-periphery schema is an image schema involving a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core.

the structure of an apple

an individual’s perceptual sphere

an individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality.

A cycle schema is an image schema which involves repetition events and event series. Its structure includes the following: a starting point, a progression through successive events without backtracking and a return to the initial state. The schema has often superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline. Linguistic instances of cycle schema representation are: days, weeks, years; sleeping and walking; breathing; circulation; emotional buildup and release.

An end-of-path schema is an image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path. In the following sentence, it is understood that one must cross the hill before reaching Sam’s home, which is at the end of the path:

Sam lives over the hill.

A part-whole-schema, as in „the body and its parts”, is an image schema involving physical or metaphorical whioles along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.

A force schema is an image schema that involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: a source and target of the force, a direction and intensity of the force, a path of motion of the source and/or target, a sequence of causation.

Love-as-a-physical-force

Justice-as-balance

A link schema is an image schema that consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them.

a child holding her mother’s hand

someone plugging a lamp into the wall

a causal ”connection”

kinship ”ties”

A scale schema is an image schema that involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and consists of any of the folllowing: a closed- or open-ended progression of amount, a position in the progression of amount, one or more norms of amount, a calibration of amount.

physical amounts

properties in the number system

economic entities such as supply and demand.

A verticality schema is an image schema that involves”up” and”down” relations.

standing upright

climbing stairs

viewing a flagpole

watching water rise in a tub

In conclusion, one may say that both metaphors and image schemas are interrelated and they derived from our daily experience. They constitute a means of verbalizing our everyday experiences. The connection between reality and how we perceive it is assured through language.

2.2 Conceptual metaphors

Metaphor is a figure of speech that implies comparison between two unlike entities, as distinguished from simile, an explicit comparison signalled by the words “like” or “as” (Encyclopaedia Britannica).

The metaphor is also a characteristic of language alone, an issue of words rather than thoughts or action. The word is used in a metaphorical way so that an artistic and rhetorical effect can be achieved. Another view of the metaphor was developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their study called “Metaphors we live by”. They showed that metaphor is multipurpose and it is found in our thoughts and also in our everyday language. In the cognitive linguistic view as developed by Lakoff and Johnson, metaphor is conceptual in nature (Kövecses, Metaphor, 2010: xi). So, the metaphor is not an only implement of the creative literary imagination; it turns to be a cognitive instrument that neither poets or us as common people could live without.

“Dead metaphors” (Kövecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2002) is what we call those metaphors that may have been commonly used but now they have become so characterless that they lost their intensity and stopped being metaphors at all. But, on the opposite, even if these metaphors are used strainlessly they have not lost their strenght to led our thoughts and this makes them “alive”.

For example:

….a local branch of this bank,

….cultivating business relations that can influence our accounts

Language is the source of the system because communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and action. It is noted that the conceptual system, in terms in which we both think and act, is fundamental in metaphorical nature. That means that our daily activity (our thinking and experience) is a matter of metaphor.

A conceptual metaphor is represented by the structure “conceptual domain A is conceptual domain B”, it refers to the fact that a conceptual domain is defined by the terms of another conceptual domain. Examples can refer to when we talk about life and love in terms of travel, about the ideas in terms of food, arguments in terms of war and others.
The conceptual field in which we extract the metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called the source domain (journeys, food, plants, buildings, etc.) and the conceptual domain which is understood in this way is called the target domain (love, life, ideas, arguments, etc.).

An important generalization resulting from these conceptual metaphors is that conceptual metaphors usually use a more abstract concept as a target and a more concrete or physical concept as a source. Argument, love, idea, and social organization are more abstract concepts than war, journey, food, and plants. This generalization is intuitive, if we want to fully understand an abstract concept, we are better to use a more concrete concept, physical or tangible than the abstract target concept for this purpose. Our experience with the physical world serves as a natural and logical basis for understanding more abstract areas. This explains why, in most cases of daily metaphor, the source and target areas are not reversible. This is called the principle of unidirectionality (Kövecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2002). The metaphorical process usually goes from the most concrete to the most abstract, but not the reverse.

An example from where we can discover elements of the source domain corresponding to the elements of the target domain is the conceptual metaphor “Love is a Journey” with the sentence “I’m not going anywhere with this”, the expression go somewhere points traveling to a certain destination, and in this case, to a vague destination. The word “I” refers to the traveler and in conclusion this sentence gives us three parts of the idea of voyage and they are: the traveler, the travel and the destination of it. When this sentence is heard in the right context, we will construe this as a reference about love and we will know that the person who said that was not thinking about the real traveler or a journey and in the end about the destination of it, but it reffered to the lover, the events that occur in a love relationship and the goal of the it. Source field is always practical or physically than the target field that is more abstract. Common source areas are those of the human body (there are not used all the aspects of this domain in understanding abstract targets. The most used are various parts of the body like the head, hands, heart and so on), animal, plant diseases, they refer about money, about food, etc. Target areas related to emotion, desire, morality, society, politics, inter-human relationships, etc. These target areas are part of psychological states, social groups and also from personal experience.

There is a set of systematic correspondences between source and target in the idea in which the conceptual elements that constitute the target correspond to the constituent elements of the source. These are called “mappings” (Zoltan Kovecses, 2010: 7).

Knowing a metaphor means getting to know the systematic mapping between a source and a target. It is not recommended that this happens in a conscious manner. This knowledge is largely unconscious and only for the purpose of analysis we bring mapping into consciousness.

However, when we know a conceptual metaphor, we use linguistic expressions that reflect it so that we do not break the mappings conventionally fixed for the linguistic community. In other words, no element of B can be mapped to any element of A. The linguistic expressions metaphorically used must be consistent with the mappings or correspondences established between the source and the target.

The most common source domains are:

The human body, the aspects used in metaphorical comprehension are various parts of the body like the head, face, shoulders etc.

Eg: the head of the department.

Animals, the human beings are understood in terms of properties of animals like being a tiger, a dog, a cow, etc.

Buildings and constructions, and the common source domains are the static object of a house and the action of raising it.

Eg: a towering genius, Dad constructed an ideal argument.

Money, this commercial event refers to a number of entities and actions like a product, handing over the product and the money.

Eg: We tried to save some energy, I invested a lot in this relationship.

Heat and cold, we use them when we refer to our attitude on people and things.

Eg: a warm reception, in the heat of desire.

The most common target domains are:

Emotion (love, fear, sadness, happiness, etc.)

Eg: They were bursting with joy.

Morality (good, courage, honor, and their opposites)

Eg: You did a lowly thing.

Society (to understand society we should use the source concepts of person or family)

Eg: A friendly nation.

Economy (the most used source domains are buildings, plants and journey).

Eg: Romania built a powerful economy.

Time (to use it as a metaphor we must consider time as an object that moves).

Eg: Time flies.

Conceptual metaphors can be classified coressponding to the level of generality they are found at. These may be generic levels or specific levels. The ones we have discussed so far are all specific level metaphors (LIFE IS A JOURNEY, IDEAS ARE FOOD, etc.). The schematic structures carrying them are completed in a detailed manner, as we have seen in the case of a journey. Summing up, there are generic level metaphors (EVENTS ARE ACTIONS, GENERIC IS SPECIFIC, etc.), because they are defined only by some number of properties, that is, they are characterized by extremely skeletal structures. For example, in an event, an entity is subject to changes, typically caused by an external force (love, death, frost, etc.). These are all specific examples of the generic concept of the event. Unlike the generic level concept of the event, specific cases are complemented with specific details. In death there is an entity, typically a human being, aged or ill, as a result of the ending of its existence. The characterization of the events does not refer to any of these elements. Nevertheless, the general structure of death shares the skeletal structure of the common event: in death, an entity goes through a certain transformation as a result of a certain force (age-time or disease).

The metaphorical concepts provide a partial understanding because if it had a total structure, we were not be able to understand a concept in terms of another; it would be the other.

The arguments serve the intention of understanding. We establish connections and these are strong and weak and the network has a general structure. A single concept may have different aspects: LOVE IS A JOURNEY, LOVE IS WAR, etc. And everyone of them gives a perspective on the main concept and it configurates one of the many aspects of it. The metaphors come out of our clearly delineated and concrete experiences and allow us to construct highly abstract and elaborate concepts, like that of an argument (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 106).

If somebody wants to understand an abstract concept, he will use another concept which is more concrete because in most cases the source domain and the target domain are not reversible.

When we think of the structural metaphors of the form A is B we realize that B is more outlined in experience and it is more concrete than A. Metaphor can give meaning to form when we speak, and speaking is linked with time and time is a metaphorical concept of space. Language becomes a conceptual metaphor in terms of space (Lakoff, 2003: 127).

The conventional metaphors may define reality with the help of a chain of entailments that marks out the features of reality and hide the other ones. The interpretation of the metaphor with the aspects of our marked out experience leads us on focusing only on these.

We observe that arguments follow some models, and that is because we conceptualize them in terms of battle systematically and also influences the aspect that arguments take and how we talk about what we do in a dispute. Because the metaphorical concept is systematic, the language used in talking about that aspect is also systematic.

An example is being given with the help of the concept ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor „ARGUMENT IS WAR”. (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 8). It is realized through the expressions:

Your claims are indefensible,

I demolished his argument;

He shot down all of my arguments

You disagree? Okay, shoot!

I’ve never won an argument with him

The concept of war is realized by the things we do in the arguing situation, like wining or losing arguments, we name the person we are arguing with, an opponent, we defend our position and attack his, we gain or we lose teritory in the verbal act. It is not reffering to a physical fight, but to a verbal fight.

When we want to focus on one of the aspects of the concept, another metaphorical concept can distract our attention from the other aspects of the concept that are unconformable to that metaphor. For example, in the book written by Alice Deignan called “Collins Cobuild English Guides 7: Metaphor”, we can find examples of metaphors, and these are written with Italics:

Her career was in ruins.

It’s going to be a bitch to replace him.

The province is quite close to sliding into civil war.

Scientists have taken a big step in understanding Alzheimer’s disease.

We can say that the metaphors listed above are not literary.

Metaphorical expressions in English are bound to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way so we can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to analyse the characteristics of metaphorical concepts and to understand the metaphorical nature of our occupations.

We use an example like the metaphorical concept TIME IS MONEY (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 8) to understand the metaphorical nature of the concepts that structure our everyday activities.

Thank you for your time

You’re wasting my time.

Time is a limited resource that we use to achieve our purposes. And that is so, the concept of work is correlated with the time it takes and it is quantified (people are paid by the day, week, etc.). In our culture TIME IS MONEY (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 8) in various ways: telephone message units, hotel room rates, etc. Therefore, these conventions exist in all cultures and structure our elementary everyday activities in a profound way. We experience time as something we can spend, invest or save and this is called a metaphorical concept because we use in everyday events money to conceptualize time.

We can also have a situation where time is a valuable commodity, when we reffer to an arguing situation and we lose perception of the accommodating aspects of arguing. The situation presented by Michael Reddy shows that our vocabulary about language is generally structured by the following metaphor: IDEAS (OR MEANINGS) ARE OBJECTS. LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS. COMMUNICATION IS SENDING. (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 10). He calls it the ”conduit metaphor”.

Eg.:

You gave me that idea,

The phrase is without meaning.

In these examples is quite difficult to see anything hidden by the metaphor or even a metaphor at all. But if we look at what the ”conduit” metaphor requires, we can observe some of the ways in which it covers aspects of the communicative process.

In the LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS FOR MEANINGS (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 11) aspects of the conduit metaphor requires that words and sentences have meanings in themselves, independent of any context or speaker. The MEANINGS ARE OBJECTS part of the metaphor requires that meanings have an existence independent of people or contexts. The part of the metaphor that says LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS FOR MEANING requires that words (sentences) have meanings, independent of contexts and speakers.

These metaphors are suitable in many situations, where the difference of context is not an issue and all the participants in the conversation comprehend the sentences in the same measure.

The ”conduit” metaphor does not fit cases where context is required to determine whether the sentence has any meaning of all and, if so, what meaning it has. (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 13). These metaphorical concepts give us a partial understanding of what communication, argument and time are, and doing so, they hide other aspects of these concepts.

Metaphors can be classified by their degree of conventionality, it means that they are well consolidated in everyday use by common people. They also can be classified by their cognitive function that they perform. In this way, there are three types of conceptual metaphor: structural, ontological and orientational metaphors (Kovecses, 2010: 37).

In the structural metaphors, the source domain insure a generous knowledge structure for the target concept. One concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another.

The idea is that the cognitive function of these metaphors is to allow the speakers to understand target A through the structure of the B source. This understanding takes place through conceptual mapping between the elements of A and the elements of B.

Ex: Time is flying by

The passing of time is motion.

(2003: 219) ”Each structural metaphor is internally consistent; it has a consistent set of ontological metaphors as its sub-parts that impose an entity structure upon a situation”

The ontological metaphors have the cognitive job to assign a new ontological status to general categories of abstract target concepts and to determine new abstract entities. They name different kinds of objects. The linguistic expressions that we use to characterize conceptual metaphors are figurative, not literal. Because they split in different parts, the part which is used to structure the normal concepts and the parts which are not used. There are expressions which stand alone and they are not used frequently in our language. They are called idiosyncratic metaphorical expressions (Lakoff, 2003: 42). Examples of these are: the leg of a table, etc.

We can consider the personification to be a form of ontological metaphor. In this figure of speech, the human qualities are transfered to non-human entities. Even if personification is used in literature, we use, for example, in everyday discourse: Life has cheated you; The car went dead on us. Life and car are not humans but they receive qualities of a human being, like cheating and dying. In this case, personification uses ourselves as source domains.

The orientational metaphors refer to the fact that they provide a set of target concepts coherent in the conceptual system. These metaphors are associated with the basic human spatial orientations, for example, center-periphery, up-down etc. They do not structure one concept in terms of another like the structural metaphors do, but they organize a total system of concepts having respect for one another. The metaphorical orientations are not optionals. They have a support in our physical and cultural experience. The orientational metaphors are built up from a concept applied to a spatial orientation: “HAPPY IS UP”, “SAD IS DOWN”.

Examples:

I’m feeling up today (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 15).

Lazarus rose from the dead (Zoltan Kovecses, Metaphor, 2010: 40).

He fell ill (Kovecses, 2010: 40).

I fell into a depression (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 15).

We have seen that many of our experiences and activities are of metaphorical nature and that most of our conceptual system is structured by metaphor. Since we see similarities in the categories of our conceptual system and the natural types of experiences we have (both being metaphoric), it follows that many of the similarities we perceive are the result of conventional metaphors that are part of our conceptual system. We have already seen this case of orientational metaphors. For example, the orientations MORE IS UP leads to a similarity that we perceive between MORE and HAPPY AND we do not see between LESS and HAPPY.

Ontological metaphors also make correspondences possible. We have seen, for example, that viewing TIME and WORK metaphorically as uniform SUBSTANCES allows us to see both as similar to physical resources and therefore just as similar to others. Thus, metaphors TIME IS A SUBSTANCE and LABOR IS A SUBSTANCE allow us to think of time and labor as comparable in our culture, since both can be quantified, attribute a value per unit, seen as serving a purpose goal and progressively consumed. Because these metaphors play a role in defining what is real to us in this culture, the similarity between time and labor is based on the real metaphor for our culture.

Structural metaphors in the conceptual system also induce similarities. Thus, the metaphor establishes similarities between ideas and food. Both can be digested, swallowed, devoured and heated and both can feed you. These similarities do not exist independently of the metaphor. The concept of swallowing food is independent of the metaphor, but the concept of swallowing ideas appears only by virtue of metaphor. In fact, the IDEAS ARE FOOD metaphor is based on more fundamental metaphors.

A relationship of the form A is B (for example, AN ARGUMENT IS A FIGHT) will be a clear subcategorization if A and B are the same kind of thing or activity and will be a clear metaphor if they are clearly different kinds of things or activity. Their criteria for subcategorization were:

same kind of activity,

enough of the same structural features.

We consider that AN ARGUMENT IS A CONVERSATION (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003) is an instance of sub-categorization, because an argument is basically a kind of conversation. An argument has all the basic structural features of a conversation. On the other hand, ARGUMENT IS WAR is a metaphor because an argument and a war are different kinds of activity. Argument involves talking instead of combat, and it is partially structured because only certain selected elements of the concept WAR are used.

We can not always distinguish subcategorization from metaphor because it not always clear when two activities (things) are different or the same. We take as an example AN ARGUMENT IS A FIGHT. The problem discused here is if fighting and arguing are the same kind of activity. Fighting involves hurting, injuring, inflicting pain, there is both physical and psychological pain and also physical and psychological dominance. If the concept FIGHT includes psychological pain and dominance on a par with physical pain and dominance, then we can say that AN ARGUMENT IS A FIGHT is a subcategorization rather than a metaphor, since they both would involve gaining psychological dominance. If we think of FIGHT as only physical and if we see psychological pain as one taken metaphorically, then we may view AN ARGUMENT IS A FIGHT as a conceptual metaphor.

The concept ARGUMENT has specialized aspects that are used in a few subcultures or circumstances. In the academic and legal world the concept ARGUMENT is specialized to RATIONAL ARGUMENT (the schemes are ideally restricted to stating premises, citing supporting evidence and describing logical conclusions), which is distinguished from everyday ”irrational argument”. The scheme of everyday argument (intimidation, appeal to authority, etc.) appear in actual rational argument in a disguised or cleared form. These additional restrictions define RATIONAL ARGUMENT as a specific section of the general concept ARGUMENT. Besides, the idea of argument is farther restricted in the case of RATIONAL ARGUMENT. The purpose of winning the argument is seen as supporting the higher purpose of understanding.

A special form of one-party argument has developed because the written discourse rules out the dialogue inherent in two-party arguments. In this situation speaking typically becomes writing, and the author addresses himself, not to an actual or other adversaries who are not there to defend themselves. It is called the specialized concept ONE-PARTY RATIONAL ARGUMENT, which is a specialized branch of the general concept ARGUMENT. Since there is no specific adversary present, an idealized one must be assumed and the victory must be maintained, but the only way to guarantee victory is if we are able to defeat all possible adversaries and deal with defences, attacks, as we construct our argument.

There is a distinction between an argument as a process (arguing) and an argument as a product (what has been written or said in the course of arguing). In this case, the process and the product are closely related aspects of the same general concept, they can not exist if one of them is not present.

We speak the words in a row, in a sentence and we say some words sooner than others. We know that speaking is correlated with time and as we saw in this chapter, time is metaphorically conceptualized in terms of space. From this situation, we realize that it is natural to conceptualize language metaphorically in spatial terms. Because of that, it is possible that some spatial metaphors apply directly to the form of a sentence. In this way it provides direct links between form and content.

We can take as an example the CONDUIT metaphor, which defines a spatial relationship between form and content and their meanings are the content of these containers: LINGUISTIC EXPRESSIONS ARE CONTAINERS. When we see a small container we think thay its content is also small. It applies also to the way we see a large container, thinking that its content is a large one. This results in MORE OF FORM IS MORE OF CONTENT. An example is: He ran and ran and ran, which points out that it is about more running than in the He ran sentence. Another example is: He is bi-i-i-i-ig! that points out that he is bigger than you indicate when saying He is big. It is called reduplication, the repetition of one or two syllables of a word, or even the whole word. Reduplication applied to noun turns singular to plural or collective, apllied to verb indicates continuation or completion, applied to adjective indicates intensification or increase, and applied to a word describing something small, indicates diminution.

Another way in which metaphor gives meaning to form is the conventional metaphor CLOSENESS IS STRENGHT OF EFFECT, with an example like: Mary won’t leave until the weekend. The explanation is that if the meaning of form n’t affects the meaning of the predicate with the form leave, the closer they are, the stronger will be the effect of negating the predicate. The CLOSENESS has to do with form while EFFECT has to do with meaning (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 133).

Cooper and Ross (1975) note that the concept of our culture of what is a prototype member of our culture determines the orientation of concepts in our conceptual system. The canonical person forms a conceptual reference point, and an enormous number of concepts in our conceptual system are oriented to whether or not they are similar to the person’s prototypes properties. Since people are usually working in an upright position, they see and move frontward, spend most of their time in fulfilling actions and see that they are practically good, we have a support in our experience to see us more up than down, more active than passive, more good than bad.

This situation determined Cooper and Ross to say that the ME-FIRST orientation: up, active, good, etc. are all oriented towards the canonical person and the others: down, passive, bad, are oriented far from him. The general principle is: Relative to the properties of the prototype person, the word whose closeness is NEAREST comes FIRST. This principle establishes a correspondence between form and content. Like the other principles we have discussed, it is a consequence of the metaphor in our normal conceptual system: NEAREST IS FIRST. Since we speak in a linear order, we must constantly choose which words to put first. Since NEAREST IS FIRST is part of our conceptual system, we place the word whose meaning is NEAREST (up) in FIRST position.

We also have the conventional metaphor AN INSTRUMENT IS A COMPANION: He and his first love, the OLCIT, rolled a lot of miles across America. The word with points out ACCOMPANIMENT in English, as for example: He went to the cinema with Maria (COMPANION). The fact that it is with and not another word indicating the accompaniment is an arbitrary convention in English. It also indicates INSTRUMENTALITY: I chopped the bread with an electric cutter.

Because the experiences on which the metaphor AN INSTRUMENT IS A COMPANION are based are likely to be universal, it is natural for this grammatical principle to be valid in most languages. Those languages that the principle does not hold are not consistent with this metaphor. Where the INSTRUMENT IS A COMPANION’s consistency does not appear in its place. Thus, there are languages in which the INSTRUMENT is indicated by a form of verb use, or where the ACCOMPANIMENT is indicated by the word for and. These are other non-metaphoric methods in which the form can be consistent with the content. Using the same word to indicate instrumentality and accompaniment makes sense. Makes such form-content links consistent with the conceptual language system. Similarly, the use of space words, such as in and at for time symbolization, makes sense, given that time is metaphorically conceived in terms of space. Metaphors in the conceptual system indicate consistent and systematic relationships between concepts. The use of the same words and grammatical devices for concepts with systematic metaphoric correspondences is one of the ways in which the correspondences between form and meaning in a language are rather logical than arbitrary (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 136).

We have seen that metaphors play an important role in characterizing the regularities of the linguistic form. Such regularity is the use of the same word to indicate both the accompaniment and the instrument. This regularity is consistent with the conceptual metaphor INSTRUMENTS ARE COMPANIONS. Many of what we perceive as logical rules of linguistic form are regularities that are consistent with metaphors in our conceptual system. Many of our activities are metaphorical in nature. The metaphorical concepts that characterize these activities structure our current reality. New metaphors have the power to create a new reality. This can begin to happen when we begin to understand our experience in terms of a metaphor, and it becomes a deeper reality when we start acting in this regard. If a new metaphor enters the conceptual system on which we base our actions, it will change the conceptual system and the perceptions and actions that it gives to the system. Much of the cultural change emerges from the introduction of new metaphorical concepts and the loss of old ones. The idea that metaphors can create realities runs counter to most of the traditional views of the metaphor. The reason is that metaphors have traditionally been viewed as a matter of simple language, rather than as a means of structuring our conceptual system and the daily activities that we carry out. It is quite reasonable to assume that only words do not change reality. But changes in our conceptual system change what is real to us and affect the way we perceive the world and act upon these perceptions. The idea that metaphor is only a matter of language and which, in the best case, can describe reality is because what is real is completely external and independent of how human beings conceptualize the world, as if the study of reality were just the study of the physical world. Such a vision of reality, the so-called objective reality, emphasizes the human aspects of reality, especially the real perceptions, conceptualizations, motivations and actions that make up most of what we are living. But the human aspects of reality are the most important for us, ranging from culture to culture, because different cultures have different conceptual systems. Cultures also exist in physical environments, some of them radically different: jungles, deserts, islands, tundra, mountains, cities. In each case, there is a physical environment with which we interact, more or less successfully. The conceptual systems of different cultures depend in part on the physical environments in which they developed.

Each culture must give a more or less successful method of dealing with its environment, adapting it and changing it. In addition, each culture must define a social reality in which people have roles that make sense and according to which they can function from a social point of view. It is not surprising that the social reality defined by a culture affects its conception of physical reality. What is real to an individual as a member of a culture is a product of both his social reality and how he shapes his experience in the physical world. Because much of our social reality is understood in metaphorical terms, metaphor plays a very important role in determining what is real to us.

The general position of Lakoff and Johnsen is that conceptual metaphors are based on the correlations in our experience. These experimental correlations can be of two types: experimental coexistence and experiential similitude. An example of experimental coexistence would be the MORE IS UP metaphor. This is based on the coexistence of two types of experiences: adding a higher substance and increasing the level of the substance. There is no experimental similarity here. An example of experiential resemblance is LIFE IS A GAMBLING GAME, one in which life actions are treated as gambling, and the possible consequences of these actions are perceived as winning or loosing. Here the metaphor seems to be based on the experience of similitude. When such a metaphor is extended, we may experience new similarities between life and gambling games (Lakoff and Johnsen, 2003: 156).

3. METAPHOR IN CULTURE

3.1 Linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphor

In this chapter we discuss about the relationship between the metaphor used in ordinary language and the metaphor used in literature. It is beleived that the real source of metaphor stems from literature and arts and that only creative genius of the poet and artist creates the most authentic examples of metaphor. In fact, everyday language like also the conceptual system provide the workings of the artistic genius.

3.1.1 Ordinary and poetic language

But the original literary and creative literary metaphors seem to be less common in literature than those metaphors that rely on the everyday conceptual system. One of the surprising discoveries of work on poetic language by cognitive linguists is the admission that most poetic language is based on common conceptual metaphors.

To interpret what we point out above, we take as an example a poem by Christina Georgina Rosetti (Kovecses, Metaphor: 50):

Does the road wind up-hill all the way?

Yes, to the very end.

Will the day’s journey take the whole log day?

From morn to night, my friend.

But is there for the night a resting place?

A roof for when the slow, dark hours begin.

May not the darkness hide it from my face?

You cannot miss that inn.

Shall I meet other wayfarers at night?

Those who have gone before.

Then must I knock or call when just in sight?

They will not keep you standing at that door.

Shall I find comfort, travel-sore and weak?

Of labour you shall find the sum.

Will there be beds for me and all who seek?

Yea, beds for all who come.

In this poem, the subject concerning life and death is being interpreted in the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor. In this case we can suggest that our judgment is based on the conceptual metaphor that puts a connection between life and death and the JOURNEY.

Although life and death are not specified at all in the poem, the metaphor of the journey for life and death leads us to understand the poem. This interpretation is sustained by additional metaphors that are used in poetry and which are conventional in our everyday conceptual system.

The line “From morn to night, my friend” brings out the metaphorical concept "A LIFETIME IS A DAY", the words “for when the slow, dark hours begin” brings out the conventional metaphor LIFE IS LIGHT; DEATH IS DARK, the line “But is there for the night a resting place” brings out the conventional metaphor DEATH IS NIGHT AND DEATH IS REST. These conventional metaphors, which are part of our everyday conceptual system, turn us to the idea that the poem is not simply a daytime journey that ends at night, but about life and death. We consider this to be a natural interpretation because the metaphors that connect the concept of journey to the concepts of life and death are so fundamental.

Gibbs, following Lakoff and Turner (1994:7) puts this in the following way: My claim is that much of our conceptualization of experience is metaphorical, which both motivates and constrains the way we think creatively. The idea that metaphor constrains creativity might seem contrary to the widely held beleif that metaphor somehow liberates the mind to engage in divergent thinking.

Then, the usual metaphors are not things that poets and writers leave behind when they do their creative work. On the contrary, the accumulation of evidence suggests that creative people are using conventional and day-to-day metaphors, and that their creativity and originality actually come from them.

3.1.2 Poetic Reworking of Ordinary Metaphors

George Lakoff, Mark Turner and Ray Gibbs (2010: 53) have pointed out that poets regularly use more devices to create new original languages and images from the general materials of everyday language and thought. These include extending, elaboration, questioning, and combining.

In extending, a new conceptual element is introduced in the source domain. Using example from the Dante’s Divine Comedy: In the middle of life’s road/ I found myself in a dark wood. The originality comes from the unconventional element that the road of life can pass through a dark wood. Dante expands the metaphor by doing simple addition with this unconventional aspect.

Elaboration refers to the fact that it elaborates an existing element of the source in an unusual way. Instead of adding a new element to the source domain, it captures an existing one in a new, unconventional way. Using example from The Phenomenology of Anger by Adrienne Rich’s:

………………

White acetylene

Ripples from my body

Effortlessly released

Perfectly trained

On the true enemy

………………….

When we think about these lines, we come up with the ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER conventional metaphor. In this poem, the hot fluid refers to acetylene and in this way she performs an act of elaboration, replacing the hot fluid with a dangerous substance and conducting it at the target of anger.

To demonstrate the mechanism of questioning, we use the article of Margaret Freeman (1995: 643), which states that “much of Dickinson’s poetry is structured by the extend to which she rejected the dominant metaphor of her religious environment, that of LIFE IS A JOURNEY THROUGH TIME, and replaced it with a metaphor more in accordance with the latest scientific discoveries of her day, that of LIFE IS A VOYAGE IN SPACE”.

Combining refers to the fact that in the clause “black night doth take away [the twilight]”, we find the following metaphors combined:

black: LIFETIME IS A DAY, LIFE IS LIGHT, DEATH IS NIGHT.

night: DEATH IS NIGHT, LIFE IS LIGHT.

take away: LIFE IS A PRECIOUS POSSESSION, EVENTS ARE ACTIONS.

3.1.3 Personification

Personification is a metaphorical device used in literature. This aspect of poetic language has been largely studied from a cognitive linguistic vision by George Lakoff and Mark Turner. One of the abstract concepts is often personified in the literature is the time.

TIME IS A REAPER

Time, the devourer of everything. (Ovid, Metamorphoses 15);

TIME IS A EVALUATOR

Time is a great legalizer, even in the field of morals. (Mencken, A Book of Prefaces)

Personification allows us to use knowledge about ourselves to understand other aspects of the world such as time, death, natural forces, inanimate objects, etc.

Lakoff and Turner (2010: 56) suggest that we use the kinds of people that we do for the target, and specifically, we use the above-mentioned source domains because it is related to EVENTS ARE ACTIONS generic-level metaphor. Considering this metaphor, we understand external events as actions. This implies an important result, that we see the events generated by an active agent. Because the actions have this type of agent, we'll see the events the same manner. The final result will be the personification of events, such as time and death. Time is an external event that takes place independently from human beings, and thus, it can be seen as an evaluator, reaper, and so on. We have these distinct agents because we have several metaphors for the concepts that time affects: life, people, and so on. We use LIFE IS A PRECIOUS POSSESSION, time can be conceptualized as a thief who steals that precious possession, and another metaphor can be PEOPLE ARE PLANTS, from where it can be conceptualized as a reaper that can kill people.
In general, we understand time in a nonmetaphorical way as a changer, an entity that can affect people and things, especially in a bad way.

3.1.4 Image Metaphors

We can find these image-based conceptual metaphors in poetry. They are rich in imagistic detail but do not use image-schemas:

My wife…whose waist is an hourglass. (Lakoff and Turner, 1989).

We have two detailed images, the first is a woman's body and the second one an hourglass. These images refer to the shape of the two objects. Using the metaphor, we take the detailed shape of the hourglass and draw it over the detailed image of the woman's body. Even though the words of the metaphor can not tell which part of the hourglass is what part of the woman's body, we know this exactly based on the common form.

3.1.5 Megametaphors

Some metaphors, conventional or new, can run the entire literary text without necessarily covering it. What is sometimes found on the surface level of literary texts is specific to micrometaphors, but the metaphor underlying these metaphors is a megametaphore that makes these surface micrometaphors coherent. Megametaphors are presented in Dylan Thomas's work, called Under Milk Wood:

It is spring, moonless night in the small town, starless and bible-black, the cobblestreets silent and the hunched, courter’s-and-rabbits’ wood limping invisible down to the sloeblack, slow, black, crowblack, fishingboat-bobbing sea. The houses are blind as moles (though moles see fine tonight in the snouting velvet dingles) or blind as Captain Cat there in the muffled middle by the pump and the town clock, the shops in mourning, and the Welfare hall in widow’s weeds. And all the people of the lulled and dumbfound town are sleeping now. (Quoted in Werth, 1994: 84).

In this text, the objects and places are characterized in terms of human properties and the process of personification is used: “the wood is hunched”, “the houses are blind”, “the middle of the town is muffled”, etc.

According to P. Werth (1994: 84) there is a megametaphor in this text: SLEEP IS DISABILITY, that provides a certain “undercurrent” to the micrometaphors that appear on the surface of the text. It is indeed an interesting point of view if we consider that the concept sleep is often used as a source domain for the concept of death. Since death is seen as sleep and sleep is comprehended as a disability, death will also function as a disability (being deaf, immobile and blind).

In the text we can identify the presence of sleep through the words: blackness, darkness and mourning. The town is viewed as dead using the complex interaction of specific metaphors, metonymy and an extended metaphor that passes through the text.

3.1.6 Emotions and Relationships

3.2 Non-linguistic Realizations of Conceptual Metahpors

The metaphors manifest in other ways than the linguistic ones because they are primarily conceptual metaphors. They are realized in many other areas of the human experience, not only in language. The list we are going to present offer us some examples of non-linguistic categories from where the conceptual metaphors are realized or they manifest:

3.2.1 Movies

The conceptual metaphor that suites very well in this field is LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Movies are about the person’s life as a journey in a certain way. In a Universal Picture movie, called The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, the image of Mr. Gateau, a blind clockmaker, after loosing his son in a battle of the War World I, he builds a large clock for the New Orleans train station, but he fixes it so that the time goes in reverse and his son will not have to go to war. The image is a realization of the conceptual metaphor TIME IS A REVERSED CLOCK.

In a Walt Disney movie, called The Sleeping Beauty, the princess captured in the turn of a castle because of a spell done to her, is spelled to fall into a deep sleep and to be waken only by a prince, who represent her true love. The image is a realization of the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS MAGIC. In another Walt Disney movie, called Tangled, for example, one scene shows that many torches were released in the sky and this image was a dream come true for the character. This image is a realization of the conceptual metaphor CHILDHOOD IS A DREAM.

3.2.2 Cartoons, Sculptures, Pictures

Cartoons are a source for the non-linguistic realizations of the metaphors. A cat is drawn having flames coming out of his fead. This is based on the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS FIRE.

In the Tomas and friends cartoon we can observe that the characters are objects represented by little trains so the metaphor that is being used in this situation is INANIMATE OBJECTS ARE PEOPLE. In this way, the train assumes the properties of a human being.

In the Speed Buggy cartoon, the main character is represented by a living car with a big heart. Besides the human characteristics of having eyes for headlamps and a mouth instead of a grille, Speed Buggy could use his front tires as arms to pick up and hold things.

In other cartoons, the characters may have hearts drawn instead of the eyes. This happens when they meet an opposite sex character. This is based on the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS BLIND.

The conceptual metaphor SIGNIFICANT IS BIG can be found in the architecture field, reffering to the Statue of Buddha from Leshan, China. It has 71 metres altitude. It was built during the Tang dinasty by the religious Haithong who hoped that Buddha could stop the plague and the fleed frequency.

The conceptual metaphor ESSENCE IS PEACE is reffered to the statue of Christ the Redeemer from Brazil. It was sculpted by the French sculptor Paul Landowsky. It has a shape of a cross and the opened arms symbolizes peace.

The Scream is a famous picture realized by Munch. It represents a man who catches his head with his hands, screaming in a complete quietness. The picture conveys the fear and the solitude of the artist. This image is a realization of the conceptual metaphor QUIETNESS IS DEPRESSION.

3.3.3. Advertisements

The selling power of advertisment is based on choosing the right conceptual metaphor. The usage of pictures are words attempt to evoke in people the need to buy these products.

For example, the washing detergent like Mr. Proper, which is represented by a man apparition who will clean everything for us, is presented as a good friend. This is based on the conceptual metaphor ITEMS TO SELL ARE PEOPLE.

4. Symbols

The symbol of fire is a common one and it appears at the Statue of Libety from New York, which was created to call forth the idea that liberty was achieved in the Unites States of America. The conceptual metaphor LIFE IS FIRE is evoked by the representation of the statue which has a torch in its hand and enlights the world.

In nowadays, the statue calls for the image of a whealty and amiable country that helps the people who are in need. The conceptual metaphor A COUNTRY IS A PERSON is applied to this. The statue, represented by a woman, is looking for the imigrants arriving to America just like a mother who welcomes her children. (Kovecses, 2010: 65)

5. Myths

One of the way in which a conceptual metaphor may be realized in myth is when one of these functions as a key element. In the mith of Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea (bulls, horses, etc.) it is found out that he is in reality, also the god of the uncontrollable external events in general. That is why the conceptual metaphor UNCONTROLLABLE EXTERNAL EVENTS ARE LARGE, MOVING OBJECTS applies to Poseidon because these large and moving objects include the sea as well.

The myth of Hercule, in which is revealed the fight between the hero and Hydra, the nine-headed serpent, presents the fact that everytime he cuts one head, two more heads appear from the open wound and heals back. So he uses a flaming brand to kill her. This is based on the conceptual metaphor DEATH IS FIRE.

The SUBCONSCIOUSNESS IS A LABYRINTH conceptual metaphor is represented in the myth of the Cretan Minotaur. King Minos built a labyrinth-prison to keep the minotaur safe and it was so complicated that it could not have escaped without the help of someone. Theseus wants to kill the minotaur so he goes into the minotaur’s maze, represented by darkness. The entering into the maze is associated with the image of slipping into his own subconsciousness.

6. Interpretation of history

The orientational metaphor DOWN may reffer to the fact that the slaves did not have that status, the one of slavery, but they orriginaly had a „higher” level of existence from which they were degraded. The conceptual metaphor „freedom is god” is applied to the situation in which the slaves were regarded like good Christians obliged to slavery by the slaveholders.

7. Politics

In American politics, the following conceptual metaphors are used: POLITICS IS WAR, SOCIETY IS A PERSON, etc. If we want to devellop the conceptual metaphor POLITICS IS WAR, we can think of the fact that in America political groups exist, the armies which have leaders corresponding to political groups and so on. This metaphor applies to the countries which go into war, one is considered to be strong and the other to be weak.

8. Morality

The conceptual metaphor used to analyse the morality is MORALITY IS STRENGHT. To explain the internal force, we can think of the seven deadly sins. An external force may be considered to be a dangerous situation which causes fear.

Whatever it may be, a moral person would make an effort to pass through the force of evil and to destroy it. The moral strenght is based on the notion of physical strenght: EVIL IS A FORCE. (Kovecses, 2010: 69).

9. Social institutions

We can consider the use of the conceptual metaphor QUALITY IS QUANTITY that the scools in the Unites States of America use through the letter grades (A,B,C,D,E or F) to evaluate the student, instead of the numbers (1 to 5 or 5 to 1, depending on the interpretation of the higer or the lower grade). To explain this situation, we can look at the domains of quality (skills, understanding and knowledge) which are noted with the help of the units of quantity (numbers).

10. Literature

The conceptual metaphor is used in the literature through the biography of a book. In the biography it is conceptualised the life of an author or character in terms of a story. This story has the structure of an conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A STORY. It also appears in the fairytales or folktales to present the lives of the characters in the books.

The conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is present when the story of one’s life is based on the historical event of a journey. Even though the action and the events in a book are structured by the conceptual metaphors, when a story is turned into a movie, the plot itself relates to the conceptual metaphor.

11. Dream interpretation

In Christianity, Joseph of Nazareth had a dream in which he is announced by an angel that king Irod gave an order that all the children had to be killed. He saves the child and stays hidden till the king dies. This dream is based on the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS AN ANGEL.

12. Music

The conceptual metaphor used to analyse the music is FEELINGS ARE SONGS. A singer transmits emotions and inner feelings to the public through his songs. The words that describe music in a literal way may be metaphorical in nature. These songs represent the communication between the singer and the entire audience, the message which is received.

4. THE CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN BRANCUSI’S WORK

Brancusi was the first artist who gave up the classical beauty in the favor of the eloquence dwindled by reducing to the essence, the new element in which is not only important the meditation but also the content, the communication, giving to the sculpture what belongs to it, to be able to be a specific mode of communication between people. The work of art is seen as a transformation of the sensations into representations, which in turn, they generate feelings, experiences, ideas.

Sculpture remains an expression of nature. The artist must know how to reveal the creature inside the material and to be the tool that reveals his cosmic essence, into a visible existence. Intimate collaboration between the artist and the used materials, as well as the passion that connects the joy of the sculptor with the visionary zeal, leads him to the idea of ​​form itself. The sculptor has to put the spirit in harmony with the spirit of the material. The direct cutting is the true path of sculpting.

Brancusi's artistic qualities are: the beautiful, the absolute, the sublime, the reason, the modernity, the harmony, the transfiguration, the simplicity and freedom. The metaphors are used as ways of surprising the pure reality. Brancusi used the technique called „metteuer a point”, and transfered the image worked in clay on a block of marble using a pantograph. His discipole was Rodin, who was his muse of inspiration.

The work is not only formed from what the artist saw or imagined, he was being influenced by the feelings and the living of those who lived in the past, and of the cultural values. ​​

The structural symbols of Brancusi's work are the oldest forms detectable in the collective imaginary of humanity: egg, column, gate, etc. At the beginning of his work, Brancusi's sculptures were classic representations of the human form.

The 1900 years were characterized by a build-up of knowledge and skills but also resources for solutions in materials modeling.

The conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS

Brancusi's sculpture called Penguins (1912) express a sense of gentleness, they preserve a human meaning in their tender movements, they seem like two people in a close movement, seeking mutual support. The sculpture gives a feeling of trust, communion, solidarity.

The second sculpture, The Kiss, set as a funeral stone at the end of a young woman in the Montparnasse cemetery, vigorously affects the continuity of life, reduces death, with the optimism of the most authentic popular source, under the condition of Sisyphus. The various elements of the body and face of the two embraced beings constituted a simple and generalized representation of them, because they did not have to resemble anyone else's, they had to be of all the men and all the women on earth and forever. It describes the embrace of the man with the woman in their fusion. Kissing is the plastic embodiment of the fundamental laws of existence. The two figures fused into the kiss became two halves of a circle. The main idea in The Kiss sculpture is based on love, as a merger between two separate entities, rebuilds the original unity of life.

These two sculptures, The Kiss and The Penguins, represent two people holding together and suggests that they are bound together, and they support each other. Love is viewed in the way in which there are two parts and only the unity of the two makes them a whole.

Attributed states are a special case of states, and attributed states include relationships. A common way to comprehend relationships is through the source domain of PHYSICAL LINKS or CONNECTIONS. Friendship is also a relationship, and as such it is conceptualized as a STRONG (PHYSICAL) UNITY between two people. The emotional bond between the two people is something that guarantees the stability, the enduringness of the friendship. Thus the metaphor focuses on the enduring nature of the relationship.

We can apply here the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS:

They’re as one.

They’re inseparable. / They fused together.

The target concept UNITY is once again illustrated through the belief that people need each other in order to be complete, and also through the thought that there is one specific person for everyone even if you do not realise who that person is.

The use of embracing in these two sculptures indicates that the two were made for each other or two parts making one whole, and it is because of that it will be impossible to replace her/his LOVE with someone else's.

The conceptual metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A STRONG (PHYSICAL) BOND

“Eve is placed above, in my statue, because her role is to perpetuate life. She is delightful and innocent. Eve represents fertility, a bud ready to grow, a fresh bloom ready to bloom, a flower ready to flow through the seed. Adam is seated underneath, because he cultivates the earth. Robots, praises and sighs”. (Brâncuși)

Eve is an overlap of spheres and spherical sectors that create sensuality, and Adam is presented through an irregular shaped diamond.

In this first sculpture called Adam and Eve (1921) we identify the conceptual metaphor FRIENDSHIP IS A STRONG (PHYSICAL) BOND. Here we can find the following mappings:

The two entities (people, etc.): Eve and Adam,

The physical bond between them is the emotional bond between two friends,

The strenght of the bond is the stability of the relationship represented here by the pedestal between them, made of wood.

The emotional bond between the two people is something that guarantees the stability, the durability of friendship. Thus, metaphor focuses on the lasting nature of the relationship. Relationships are generally seen as links, ties, bonds, and so on. They indicate different degrees of resistance, the bond being reserved primarily for the strong positive emotional relationships. In general, a very strong bond corresponds to a very solid relationship that us, participants, see as sustainable or permanent.

In the second image, The Gate of The Kiss sculpture is represented by two thick, parallelepiped columns supported by one side and another by a thicker architrave than them. It is also made from the hard stone of the mill as profound as the Table of silence. It looks life, first of all, as an attribute of universal matter, as a noble face of her.

The sculpture The Gate of the kiss describes the unity of two people, represented by those two thick columns and the physical bond between them is represented by that thicker architrave.

The conceptual metaphors that we can identify in these sculptures are:

Their bodies collided and merged into one fiery entity.

4.3 The conceptual metaphor FLYING IS UP

The main concept is flying, from the first position of the Maiastra (1909), passing through the Maiestrele (1912), The Bird (1915), The Golden Bird (1919, 1920) and the variants of the Bird in Space (1923-1941). In the case of The Bird, he moved forward from the unconscious being to the act of flight himself. In The Bird in Space, it refers to the fact that the bird belongs to another world, to a lighter and higher atmosphere. In the Bird Majesty, a giant bird is represented, resting, with its curved neck. In The Golden Bird, the idea of lightness and flight is represented, it being bound to the ground by the verticality of the back.

The sculptor wanted to devellop a theme of a bird in flight (shown in the first two pictures). He wanted to reveal its movement instead of the physical attributes. That is why in this work, there are no wings and feathers, the head is reduced to a slanted oval plane and the shape of the body is elongated. The Bird in Space sculpture may represent the essence of flight.

The third sculpture The Seal originates in the gesture of liberation of a young woman who has been a prisoner of unhappy love for a long time. Crisp inside, unable to observe anything other than his individual case, she suddenly comes out of the shadow and rediscovers the universe. Brancusi remarks her, and the movement of the neck that rises resembles in his eyes with an aquatic animal.

In the fourth sculpture we have the sculpture called The Flying Tortoise (1943). It is Brancusi’s last work and it represents a tortoise breaking away from the earth, illustrating the opposition between creeping and flying.

4.4 The conceptual metaphor ABSTRACT STRUCTURE IS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

With the Sleeping Muse I sculpture (1910), which was inspired by Baroness Renee-Irana Frachon, who served as a model, Brancusi developed a distinct form of portrait bust, representing only his unmarked head. This work was the first maneuver of Brancusi's sleeping head, a thematic cycle that occupied the artist for about twenty years. The smoothing of the piece, made by the artist's practice of polishing the surface of his sculptures until they reached a high glow, contrasts with the sculpted definition of the facial features of the model.

The Sleeping Muse sculpture suggests, by the langour of the ovoid shape, an abstract structure, which can be identified with the target domain and the only source domain represented in this sculpture is the insignificant representation of the facial features.

In the Prometheus sculpture, the small curve of the neck is the only indication of the body. Except for two small, strange ears, facial features: simple indexes of the forehead, nose and mouth, barely interrupt the surface of the compact oval.

In The Beginning of the World marble sculpture is being integrated the entire vision of the cosmos. This first version is almost identical in size to "Sculpture for the Blind", perhaps to emphasize the continuity of conception.

In relation to the ovoid theme in Brancusi's creation, American poet Ezra Pound said: "(…) we must remember that Brancusi would have realized a pure form, free of any terrestrial gravity, a form so free in her own life as that of geometry analytical. And the proof that this experience has been successful is that in every part you look at it, the oval seems alive and ready to rise up in space."

4.5 The conceptual metaphor SAD IS A BURDEN

The first sculpture, called The Prodigal Son (1915) is a sculpture in oak wood. The work suggests a person who is wearing a burden on his shoulders and leaning on the ground.

The second sculpture, called The Prayer (1907) is suggesting a praying woman, a woman who kneels, and cries next to the pedestal.

The external pressure caused by the burden on the body-container corresponds to the stress or difficulty caused by the emotion on the self. Let’s call this emotional stress or difficulty.

In this metaphor, emotional stress or difficulty causes the self to function abnormally, while the Agonist’s force tendency can be identified as the self’s tendency to function normally.

The Antagonist’s force tendency in the source domain includes ‘pressure on person,’ while in the target it is ‘stress in self.’ The change from on to in indicates that there is an additional metaphor underlying the mapping: namely, INTERNAL IS EXTERNAL, according to which internal states are comprehended as external events.

Notice also that the BURDEN metaphor may entail physical movement and, consequently, difficulty in action. This implication comes from the EVENT STRUCTURE metaphor. In EVENT STRUCTURE movement corresponds to action (ACTION IS MOTION).

This aspect of EVENT STRUCTURE applies to the emotions when the emotions are viewed as something difficult, something to deal with, given a larger context. In this case, we get conceptual metaphors such as:

He got over his anxiety,

She’s weighed down by her sadness,

He’s held back by his anger in life.

Finally, it can be seen that the BURDEN applies a steady or constant pressure on the self. This is in contrast to the internal force in the PRESSURIZED CONTAINER metaphor, where the internal pressure is typically momentary or lasts a short time. Correspondingly, the fundamental force tendency of emotion (i.e., that of the Antagonist) will be momentary in the INTERNAL PRESSURE, while steady, or longer-lasting, in the BURDEN metaphor.

4.6 The conceptual metaphor SIGNIFICANT IS BIG

The sculpture The Head of Laocoon may represent the conceptual metaphor SIGNIFICANT IS BIG, because the person in the sculpture is represented as oversized and that suggests his presumed importance. The second sculpture represents Roman Emperor Vitellius in the form of a mature man's bust with a round face and a thick neck, his head turned slightly to the left shoulder. The Emperor has short, lightly curled hair, combed to the back, and wears a toe trapped in round folds. The Bust of General Carol Davila sculpture illustrates the doctor and chemist Carol Davila, who was raised to the rank of general. He organized the Romanian ambulance service, which was later distinguished during the Independence War.

These sculptures use the size as a source for quality. Size is metaphorically applied to successful or important people, in our case the humans represented in these three sculptures of Brancusi.

He was overpoweringly male.

4.7 The conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE PEOPLE

In the years 1906-1907 Brancusi worked numerous heads of children, portraits of young men, women or men, made in gypsum, bronze or stone. There was a lack of interest for members, for large areas of the human body.

Some of these works are: Portrait of Nicolae Darascu (1906), Boy's Study (1906), Supliciu (1906), Prayer (1907). They have a broken arm, possibly removed at the end with a hammer blow. The heads of children, repeated almost obsessively in different hypotheses, the variants of Supplication, the head of a sleepy young woman (a gypsum titled Teenage (1906)), the other called Rest (1906), Sleep in Marble (1908), are all represented by the same expressiveness.

4.8 The conceptual metaphor TIME IS A FLUID CONTAINER

Each octahedron of the Endless column sculpture has a training point, a maximum extension and an end point, but each end is at the beginning of the next cycle that rests on it and rises above to be the base of another and so on. It has 30 meters tall, lying svelte and lonely in the middle of a smooth and fairly stretched space, Endless column sculpture seems to drain directly from the ground to support the other end with the sky.

The Endless column sculpture symbolizes the happy future, the life with no ending, the perpetuation of it.

The Table of silence is made of a stone cylinder with a diameter of 2.13 m and a height of 0.473 m forming the upper part, the table of the table itself. It is placed on another cylinder slightly smaller, which is the foot of the table and around it 12 chairs formed by a single piece of round stone, progressively narrowed in the middle are arranged in circle at equal distances. The stone is harsh, porous, heavy. Seen from above, the 12 circles of the seats seem to be a clock dial with its 12 hours.

The flow of history

5. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusion of this paper is that sculptures can indeed reflect many forms of the conceptual metaphor. Analysing these sculptures was a very efficient way of observing such phenomena since they are structured in a few categories in order to transmit meanings and emotions.

Lakoff and Johnson's claim that conceptual metaphors are continually used because people's conceptual system is structured in a metaphorical way (1980: 3) and it is strengthened by the conclusion in this paper.

The difficulty with studies of conceptual metaphors, and other studies of language and mind, is that people might interpret things very differently, thus making the importance of interpreting the results with these greater difficulties in mind.

People often describe certain conceptual domains in terms of other conceptual domains in order to better understand them. Although they are often so fully integrated in people’s minds that they are used subconsciously, there are ways of distinguishing them in language.

Studies of conceptual metaphors regarding emotions and how they are delineated and chanced over time could be realized by analyzing the sculptures of a particular carver (in our case, C. Brancusi). Analyses of particular sculptures can point out the source domains which can be used to describe the target domains, like LOVE, SAD, IDEAS, TIME, etc. and similarly the number of instances can be analysed. By using sculptures of the same carver, separated by a particular amount of time it is also possible to analyse if these metaphors change in any particular way.

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21 sculpturi ale lui Brâncuși revoluționează arta modernă

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